Conclusion
Understanding the complexity of the molecular and biochemical basis of impairment of insulin, along with microvascular disease in diabetes mellitus is accomplished in a method using conceptualization where taking into account the interactions, in the instance of insulin dysfunction and resistance, the interconnections, and correlations between glucose, insulin signaling, with associated molecules and substrates that regulate various tissues of metabolic Importance are key approaches in understanding such pathways. With the various molecules involved, participating in both normal, and dysfunctional pathways and mechanisms, the intracellular processing of the signal was provided by the inducer, in that of insulin where it would bind to the insulin receptor substrate, IRS. Other molecules, consisting of PK13, PKB, and PKC along with their derivatives and isotopes, were of also great importance due to the strong evidence of support that the dysfunction of these proteins in their homeostatic form contributed to the overall process of insulin resistance.
In regards to retinopathy, the leading cause of blindness in patients with diabetes mellitus, the molecular basis and accreditation for the pathology that results is mainly due to the polyol pathway, in which glucose becomes reduced to sorbitol, consequently being converted into fructose. This mechanism becomes active when glucose levels become abnormally increased where the cellular level of toxicity occurs in diabetic hyperglycemia where the products of this pathway and the associated cofactors and substrates which contribute, such as aldose reductase in the rate-limiting step of the enzymatic pathway, demonstrate that the abnormalities that arise due to retinopathy are...
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...s highly polymorphic for the immune system, which include such molecules including HLA which is classified as the class 1 dimeric molecule proteins, with the intended function of presenting antigenic peptides to CD8, T lymphocytes. (Mark A. Atkinson, Noel K. Maclaren, 1994) Secondarily, HLA class II are also known to be dimeric, while their characteristic perception demonstrates constitutive expression or enhanced inducing on the surface of antigen-presenting cells. The interaction occurring between a cell that would possess a molecule of HLA in contact with an antigenic peptide and T lymphocyte, with a receptor present, would demonstrate a process where the recognition of HLA and the peptide forming a complex, would result in the instigation of activation and proliferation of T lymphocytes where this immune response, underlies almost all immune response. (Mark A.
Glucose is a sugar that plays a big part in a human’s health and well-being. This sugar is a major source of energy for the body’s brain and cells. The Cells that receive energy from glucose help in the building of the body’s muscle and tissue. Although glucose may be important to the body too much of this sugar can cause a chronic condition called Diabetes. Diabetes, also known as Diabetes mellitus, is a chronic condition that is caused by too much sugar in the blood. This condition can affect all age groups. In fact, in 2010 a survey was taken by the National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse, on the number of newly diagnosed diabetes. Out of 1,907,000 people: 24.38% were ages 20-44, 55.17% were ages 45-64, and 20.45% were ages 65 and greater. Diabetes is a very serious condition, and it can be deadly if left untreated. This paper will help better educate the reader on the signs and symptoms, the testing process, and the management of diabetes.
The pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus in is related to the insulin hormone. Insulin is secreted by cells in the pancreas and is responsible for regulating the level of glucose in the bloodstream. It also aids the body in breaking down the glucose to be used as energy. When someone suffers from diabetes, however, the body does not break down the glucose in the blood as a result of abnormal insulin metabolism. When there are elevated levels of glucose in the blood, it is known as hyperglycemia. If the levels continue to remain high over an extended period of time, damage can be done to the kidneys, cardiovascular systems; you can get eye disorders, or even cause nerve damage. When the glucose levels are low in one’s body, it is called hypoglycemia. A person begins to feel very jittery, and possibly dizzy. If that occurs over a period of time, the person can possibly faint. Diabetes mellitus occurs in three different forms - type 1, type 2, and gestational.
Well how can you get it? Well it’s caused by damaged blood vessels in the tissue that the retina which is located at the back of the eye. When blood sugar levels are too high for extended periods of time, it can damage capillaries which are tiny blood vessels that supply blood to the retina. Over time these blood vessels begin to leak fluids and fats, causing edema. Then the vessels can close off which is called ischemia. These types of signs are non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (“Diabetic Retinopathy Treatment,”2016).
Peppa M, Uribarri J, and Vlassara H. Glucose, Advanced Glycation End Products, and Diabetes Complications: What Is New and What Works. Clinical Diabetes October 2003 vol. 21 no. 4 186-187.
Diabetes mellitus, habitually referred to as diabetes is caused by a decline in insulin secretion by the cells of the pancreatic islet resulting into a surge in blood glucose concentration, a condition known as hyperglycemia. Diabetes insipidus is a disorder defined by the secretion of huge quantities of highly diluted urine, this is regardless if a reduction in fluid intake. This is as a result of a deficit of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also known as vasopressin produced by the posterior pituitary gland. The disorder diabetes mellitus is associated by extreme reduction in weight, a higher urge for urination, also known as polyuria, higher levels of thirst (polydipsia) and an extreme craving to eat known as polyphagia. This disorder has been categorized as Type 1 or insulin dependent diabetes and Type 2 or non-insulin dependent diabetes another type is the Gestational diabetes. The Type 1 diabetes mellitus is portrayed by a deficiency of the insulin-secreting beta cells of the islets of Langerhans found in the pancreas, this leads to a shortage of insulin. The principal cause for this deficiency of beta cells is a T-cell mediated autoimmune onslaught. In children, Type1 diabetes is known as juvenile diabetes. The Type 2 diabetes mellitus is as a result of insulin resistance or diminished insulin sensitivity coupled to a reduction in insulin production.
“Cells Involved In Immune Responses and Antigen Recognition.” Microbiology and Immunology. Web. 18 Dec. 2011. .
To be able to determine which task the immune system needs to take to fight off the pathogen, it must be able to differentiate between self and non-self-substances. The immune system gets activated by the non-self-substances called antigens. The antigens attach to special receptor sites on defense cells which starts cell processes. If the body has come in contact with the antigen before, it will be able to respond to it more quickly (PubMed Health).
Diabetes is a disease in which a person’s body in unable to make or utilize insulin properly which affects blood sugar levels. Insulin is a hormone that is produced in the pancreas, which helps to regulate glucose (sugar) levels, break down carbohydrates and fats, and is essential to produce the body’s energy. The CDC (2013) offers reliable insight, summarized here, into the different types of diabetes, some causes, and health complications that may arise from the disease.
Diabetes refers to a set of several different diseases. It is a serious health problem throughout the world and fourth leading cause of death by disease in the country. All types of diabetes result in too much sugar, or glucos in the blood. To understand why this happens it would helpful if we understand how the body usually works. When we eat, our body breaks down the food into simpler forms such as glucose. The glucose goes into the bloodstream, where it then travels to all the cells in your body. The cells use the glucose for energy. Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, helps move the glucose from bloodstream to the cells. The pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus further explains the concept on how this disease works. Pancreas plays an important role of the metabolism of glucose by means of secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon. These hormones where then secreted by Islets of Langerhans directly to the blood. Inadequate secretion of insulin results on impaired metabolism of glucose, carbohydrates, proteins and fats which then result to hyperglycemia and glycosuria. Hyperglycemia is the most frequently observed sign of diabetes and is considered the etiologic source of diabetic complications both in the body and in the eye. On the other hand, glucagon is the hormone that opposes the act of insulin. It is secreted when blood glucose levels fall.
Carbohydrates that are consumed by a diabetic will have the most effect on his or her blood glucose levels (Watts & Anselmo, 2006, p. 46). Because of this, carbohydrates play an important role in th...
Mackay (2001) also suggests that by characterizing monoclonal antibodies with the use of the cluster of differentiation (CD) nomenclature, many functional cell surface molecules and their receptors could be described.
Diabetic Vascular Disease is a disorder of metabolism and is one of many diseases that can affect the heart and the system surrounding it. The food we eat is broken down into a substance known as Glucose which is the body’s most important and main source of food that is given to the body to provide energy for cells. However, for this substance to work properly and appropriately, a hormone called insulin must be present in the body. “Diabetes develops when the pancreas does not provide and make enough insulin or the cell in the muscles, liver, and fat do not use insulin properly. As a result, the amount of glucose in the blood increases while the cells are starved of energy.” (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases,
Diabetic retinopathy is caused by excessive blood glucose in uncontrolled diabetics. There are three stages of the disease. In background retinopathy, the earliest stage, the
MODY is a disease, where only one allele is mutated, it had been proposed that the clinical phenotype of MODY be caused by two reasons. First one is by haploinsufficiency and second one is by a dominant-negative effect of the mutated protein upon the wild-type protein.
Diabetes is associated with the risk of morbidity and mortality by creating micro and macro vascular complications; furthermore, People with diabetes has very high risk for multi organs dysfunctions