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Bioterrorism research paper
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It is widely known that a multitude of people use Botox injections for cosmetic purposes without any significant adverse side effects. However, not many Botox patients are aware that what they are injecting into their bodies, botulinum toxin, is one of the most lethal substances known to mankind. This neurotoxin poses a major threat to be used in a bioterrorism attack, killing thousands of people. If it is truly as toxic as scientists claim, then how can botulinum toxin possibly be used in facial injections? This is a very controversial substance that possesses an intriguing mixture of paradoxical uses. Uncovering the puzzle pieces of botulinum toxin’s chemical composition and history, as well as the positive and negative effects it has had on the world, is beneficial to understanding the significance of this substance.
Botulinum toxin has a complex chemical composition and is found in various surprising locations. The toxin is derived from Clostridium botulinum, and according to P.K. and Anjana Nigam, the authors of the Indian Journal of Dermatology, it is “an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rod commonly found on plants, in soil, water and the intestinal tracts of animals.” H. Bradford Hawley M.D., the editor of Magill’s Medical Guide, states that these bacteria are vastly immune to high temperatures and can persevere through numerous methods used to eradicate it and to get rid of toxins for secure consumption of food and water. Since the bacteria can be found in such a diverse variety of commodities, which all can be ingested by humans, it is critical to find a way to disinfect our soil, meat, and produce against C. botulinum.
Clostridium botulinum can exist in a myriad of different forms. P.K. and Anjan...
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...4 (2008): n. p. eLibrary Science. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.
“Johns Hopkins Working Group on Civilian Biodefense Says Botulinum Toxin is a Major Biological Weapons Threat.” Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Johns Hopkins University, 28 Feb. 2001. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.
Josko, Deborah. "Botulin Toxin: A Weapon in Terrorism." Clinical Laboratory Science. 01 Jan. 2004: n.p. eLibrary Science. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.
Nigam, P. K. and Anjana Nigam. “Botulinum Toxin.” Indian Journal of Dermatology 55.1 (2010): n.p. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.
Shukla, H.D. and S. K. Sharma. “Clostridium botulinum: A Bug with Beauty and Weapon.” Informa Healthcare 31.1 (2005): n.p. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.
Snyder, Kendra. "Scientists Determine Drug Target for the Most Potent Botulinum Neurotoxin" Brookhaven National Laboratory News Release. 29 Apr. 2008: n.p. SIRS Government Reporter. Web. 03 Feb. 2014.
Clostridium difficile, otherwise known as C. diff, is a species of spore-forming, anaerobic, gram-positive bacteria that is known to cause watery diarrhea. 1 The genus name, Clostridium refers to the spindle shape of the organism while Difficile means difficult in Latin due to the fact that this organism thrives in unfavorable conditions and is very difficult to isolate.4 The incidence of getting CDI has increased over the years due to new strains of increased toxin production of the bacteria and increased resistance to antibiotics.2 It is a gastrointestinal infection, and the most common cause of infectious diarrhea.1 C. difficile was first identified in the feces of healthy newborns back in the 1930’s and by 1935, it was considered normal flora. 2 During 1974, researchers conducted that about 21% of patients that were treated with an antibiotic called clindamyacin reported diarrhea and about 10% of them reported to have conducted pseudomembranous colitis as a side effect of this treatment. 2 It was in 1978 where C. diff had been known to cause anti-biotic associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis. 2 It is known to form spores that resist many disinfectants; it also survives for several months on different surfaces.1 It is a common form of a nosocomial infection and the prevalence of becoming infected with C. diff is about 0-15% in a health care setting. 3 The spores survive well in environments such as soil, water and animals and is distributed worldwide. 4 CDI produces two toxins (Toxin A and B), which are cytotoxic and cause tissue necrosis.4
Guillemin, J. (2005). Biological weapons: From the invention of state-sponsored programs to contemporary bioterrorism Columbia University Press.
A toxin, produced by an animal, can be a toxicant to humans, but it can also provide some favorable uses as well. Present one such example.
As stated in Chan-Tack and Bartlett’s article Botulism, “The incidence of foodborne botulism is approximately 24 cases per year. The incidence of wound botulism is 3 cases per year. The incidence of infant botulism is 71 cases per year, with a mean age of 3 months.” (2010). In addition, in merely fifteen percent of the Clostridium botulinium outbreaks are the toxin type undetermined. The first case descriptions of botulism were reported by Dr. Justinus Kerner, a German physician, in 1822. He had conducted experiments on himself and laboratory animals, which gave him this case findings (Taillac, & Kim, 2010).
Gordons, S. (2006, February 1). Drug Helps Babies Fight Deadly Botulism. HealthyDay Consumer News Service.
Clark, D. K. (1959). Effectiveness of chemical weapons in WWI. Bethesda, Md.: Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University.
Botulinum toxin aka the “miracle poison, is one of the most poisonous substances known. (Munchau & Bhatia, 2000) It is a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore forming rod commonly found on plants, in soil, water and animals intestinal tracts. It was Scott (Scott, 1981) who was the first show the effectiveness of botulinum toxin type A in the management of crossed eyes in humans also known as “st...
Clostridium perfringens is a gram-positive spore-forming bacillus involved in foodborne illness and wound infection. It is an obligate anaerobe and the only member of the genus Clostridium that is non-motile. This microorganism is normally present in soil and decaying vegetation and is an inhabitant of animal and human intestines. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, C. perfringens is one of the most common sources of foodborne illness in the United States, being the cause of an estimated 1 million cases each year. However, it is also prevalent worldwide. This bacterium has the shortest reported generation time of any organism at 6.3 minutes in thioglycollate medium, making it particularly virulent after initial inoculation.
More precisely DON is classified as type-B trichothecene [20]. It is produced by Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum [(Maresca, 2013). DON contamination is observed worldwide, within cereal crops such as wheat, maize or barley being most frequently affected (Richard, 2007). Furthermore, silage contamination is regularly observed (Tangni et al., 2013). Cold and wet weather conditions favour DON production (Lindblad et al., 2012) and it was found that the timing of the rainfall is more influential than the amount of precipitation (Mesterházy, 2002). In animal husbandry, DON, also known as vomitoxin, is primarily known for causing feed refusal and emesis in pigs (Pestka, 2007). This mycotoxin also alters the immune response and the intestinal functions (Pestka, 2007). DON may be produced together with two acetylated derivatives, 3-AcDON and 15-AcDON, that have differential toxicity on pig intestine (Behrens et al., 2015). Poultry are not as sensitive to DON and feed refusal is only observed at very high concentrations (16–20 mg/kg feed) (Whitlow and Hagler, 2002). Ruminants are the least sensitive animal species to DON, a fact that is attributed to the capacity of rumen microflora to detoxify this mycotoxin (Fink-Gremmels,
While Botox is incredibly safe in the hands of skilled physician, it is still part of the cosmetic surgery world and, as such, should be treated with the same respect as you would give any other life-altering procedure. Botox is not something that you want done at a "party" or other special event, you want to use the same set of skills to choose a Botox provider as you would for Fraxel laser treatments, breast augmentation, liposuction, or a tummy tuck. Choosing a plastic or cosmetic surgeon who is certified by the American Board of Plastic Surgery (ABPS) ensures that you receive the finest care from a physician who has years of training and experience in surgery, reconstruction, and cosmetic procedures. In fact, an ABPS certified physician must have a minimum of five years of progressive clinical surgery experience and be able to qualify for American Board of Surgery certification before they even begin their plastic surgery residency. These doctors must keep current on all of the latest technologies through continuing medical education and training, and they follow a very strict code of
In the 19th century Tetanus was the concern of Joseph Lister in patients who had the disease in the hospital. A. Carle, G. Rattone, A. Nicolaire, and others recognized the Infectious nature of Tetanus in 1884 – 1888. The isolation of the bacteria and its toxin happened in 1889-1892 by S. Kitasato, T Weyl, and A. Nicolaire. S. Kitasato, L. Villiard, E. von Behring, and W. Schutz did animal experiments on both active and passive immunization in 1890 – 1892. Crystallization of the neurotoxin happened in 1949, because of L.
Leavitt, Ron. "Bioterrorism; All-Purpose Drugs Tested for Germ, Radiation, Chemical Agents". TB & Outbreaks Weekly 4 (Dec. 2001): 14-16
So, what is Botox? Botox is the market name for type A botulinum toxin which is a purified form of the toxin produced by the bacteria, clostridium botulinum. This bacteria is commonly associated with food poisoning and is lethal in large doses. The botulism toxin could paralyze vital muscles needed for breathing. Although related to botulism food poisoning, the amounts of Botox given are so minimal and localized, that the toxin will not spread to any other muscles in the body, thus making it a safe and harmless procedure. When used cosmetically, tiny amo...
[9] Byrd JH, Peace MR. Entomotoxicology: drugs, toxins, and insects, in forensic Chemistry. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons 2011