There are several classification of mycotoxins base on the field of study. Different researchers grouped mycotoxins according to their area of study and the toxicity levels. For example, the Cell biologist grouped mycotoxins into generic classes such as teratogens, mutagens, carcinogens, and allergens. While the clinicians classified mycotoxins base on the body organs they affect such as hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, immunotoxins, and others. The organic chemists classified mycotoxins base on their chemical structure including lactones, coumarins, and so forth. Base on their biosynthetic source mycotoxins are grouped by biochemists as polyketides, amino acid-derived mycotoxins, etc. The physicians according to the illnesses they …show more content…
Same mycotoxin may be placed in different groups. For example, aflatoxin is a hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, difuran-containing, polyketide-derived Aspergillus toxins (Bennett and Klich, 2003). 3.1.1 Aflatoxins Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) are considered to be the group of mycotoxins of greatest concern from a global perspective. They are primarily produced by Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and in rare cases, by A. nomius (Nida’M and Ahmad, 2010). AFB1, the most abundant and most toxic aflatoxin [(Prandini et al., 2009), is often referred to as the most potent naturally occurring carcinogen (Creppy, 2002). It is classified as a Group 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (Liu and Wu, 2010). Lactating animals fed AFB1 contaminated diets will produce milk contaminated with its mono hydroxylated derivative AFM1 (Bognanno et al., 2006), known as 2B, possibly …show more content…
More precisely DON is classified as type-B trichothecene [20]. It is produced by Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum [(Maresca, 2013). DON contamination is observed worldwide, within cereal crops such as wheat, maize or barley being most frequently affected (Richard, 2007). Furthermore, silage contamination is regularly observed (Tangni et al., 2013). Cold and wet weather conditions favour DON production (Lindblad et al., 2012) and it was found that the timing of the rainfall is more influential than the amount of precipitation (Mesterházy, 2002). In animal husbandry, DON, also known as vomitoxin, is primarily known for causing feed refusal and emesis in pigs (Pestka, 2007). This mycotoxin also alters the immune response and the intestinal functions (Pestka, 2007). DON may be produced together with two acetylated derivatives, 3-AcDON and 15-AcDON, that have differential toxicity on pig intestine (Behrens et al., 2015). Poultry are not as sensitive to DON and feed refusal is only observed at very high concentrations (16–20 mg/kg feed) (Whitlow and Hagler, 2002). Ruminants are the least sensitive animal species to DON, a fact that is attributed to the capacity of rumen microflora to detoxify this mycotoxin (Fink-Gremmels,
This last process is significant not only because it brought dioxin the current notoriety but it also is a chemical process used to make products that were used and are still been used in many applications. These applications include pesticide, herbicide, defoliating agent such as Agent Orange, cleaning agent and electrical insulation. Consequently, human exposure to dioxin is not a recent phenomenon and the dangers of dioxin are not unknown. Only in recent years, especially after the Vietnam War, has the media concentrated on the dangers and impact of dioxin.
Botulinum toxin has a complex chemical composition and is found in various surprising locations. The toxin is derived from Clostridium botulinum, and according to P.K. and Anjana Nigam, the authors of the Indian Journal of Dermatology, it is “an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rod commonly found on plants, in soil, water and the intestinal tracts of animals.” H. Bradford Hawley M.D., the editor of Magill’s Medical Guide, states that these bacteria are vastly immune to high temperatures and can persevere through numerous methods used to eradicate it and to get rid of toxins for secure consumption of food and water. Since the bacteria can be found in such a diverse variety of commodities, which all can be ingested by humans, it is critical to find a way to disinfect our soil, meat, and produce against C. botulinum.
The reason that this dioxin is so dangerous is that the “dioxin is persistent organic pollutant that is toxic over many decades, is not water-soluble and does not degrade easily. Clinging to soil particles carried by water runoff from spills or sprayed areas downstream into the sediments of lakes or streams; it is consumed by mollusks, fish and waterfowl, easily entering the human food chain.” It is chemically stable and is retained in the human fatty tissue. If it is detected early it can be treated by surgery or medication but usually if it is found to late then it can’t be treated (make agent orange
Ricin is a lethal toxic agent that can be found in the seeds of castor bean plant. According to CDC at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/ricin/facts.asp, ricin is created from castor bean waste after it had been processed and castor oil is made. The agent is illegal and is not available in the United States, but is available in the international countries. The agent itself is known to be expensive within the international market, but the castor bean plant can be found anywhere. The agent can be used as a biological or chemical weapon of mass destruction. During the World War II, the agent was identified as W agent by Croddy and Wirzt (2005). Ricin is deadly and can enter into the body in many ways. Croddy and Wirtz (2005) stated that ricin can enter the body through injection, inhalation, or indigestion. Ricin comes in the form of liquid, powder, or pellets. The agent is tasteless, odorless, and can be hardly detected at times depending on the nature of the agent. It can be spread widely and easily through food or water contamination if a large amount got in the hands of the enemies or terrorist. Ricin is not a contagious agent, but can be spread through the population if it’s in the food, drink, or on the clothing and person touches it. Symptoms of the agent when exposed are abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea (sometimes bloody, dehydration, decrease in urine, decrease in blood pressure and may cause death within 3-5 days. Currently, there is no treatment for the agent. It can also be produced as bombs or any other explosive device. How it is delivered maybe depending on the enemies. Ricin may be deadly, but according to the http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/ricin/facts.asp (2013), has been used as therapy for cancer. T...
Simpson LL. Identification of the characteristics that underlie botulinum toxin potency: implications for designing novel drugs. Biochimie 2000:82: 943-953.
The most common route of exposure to mycotoxins is ingestion, but it may also involve dermal, respiratory, and parenteral routes, the last being associated with drug abuse (Peraica and Domijan, 2001). In general, animals are directly exposed to mycotoxins through the consumption of mouldy feedstuffs, eating contaminated foods, skin contact with mould infected substrates and inhalation of spore-borne toxins (Bennett and Klich, 2003a). Human exposure to mycotoxins may result from consumption of plant-derived foods that are contaminated with toxins, the carry-over of mycotoxins and their metabolites in animal products such as meat and eggs (Veldman, 2004) or exposure to air and dust containing toxins (Jarvis, 2002). Most importantly, the presence of potentially toxigenic fungi does not imply the presence of mycotoxins, nor does the finding of mycotoxins prove that a particular species is, or was, present. Toxin production is dependent on substrates, nutrient levels, moisture, pH, and temperature (Murtoniemi et al.,
Poisons come in different forms and act in different ways. They can act locally, absorption through the body, or both. There are three different categories that poisons are put into: inorganic, organic, and asphyxiants...
Teratogens are easily classified in three different groups, these being drugs, disease and environmental. These three classifications are very broad. To be slightly more specific some commonly heard of agents classified as teratogens are given as examples. Agents classified as drugs, include prescription, non-prescription and illegal. Some frequently heard of conditions requiring prescription drugs that are known teratogens are diabetes, hypertension, and Anxiety. Other commonly heard of non-prescription and illegal teratogens are cocaine, nicotine, caffeine, and marijuana. Environmental teratogens are agents that are man made or a product of industry. Some well-known teratogens are Lead, mercury, PCB’s, radiation and arsenic. Lastly, we have teratogens due to disease. Some diseases known to cause prenatal complications are HIV, herpes, Rubella, and Syphilis. This information is very common and is all provided within the college text book and from research found by the University Hospital School of Iowa.
Pesticides are used daily throughout all types of places. In rural areas, farmers are applying pesticides on their crops to protect them from the devastation that some insects can have. In urban areas families are using pesticides to protect their houses and their children from pests. There are many different sections of pesticides. Fungicides kill fungus, herbicides kill plants, rodenticide kill rodents, larvicides kill larvae, and bactericides kill bacteria. When people use pesticides, they feel as though their houses and children are protected. Many people don’t see the down fall of using such harsh chemicals. Exposure to harsh chemicals can send your body in a downward spiral.
However, health concerned organizations want to ban the use of these products due to the increasing fears that they can cause harm to the consumers. For over 50 years, antibiotics have been added to the food of animals such as poultry, cattle and pigs. The main purpose for doing so is to lower the risk of disease in animals. Farm animals are housed together in overcrowded areas, which are very dirty. The hygiene level can get to such a poor state that they are often in contact with their own excreta as well as excreta of the other animals they are housed with and because of tight single air space they share, the likelihood of catching diseases from one another is further increased and very often a whole heard can be infected at one time.
Consuming foods that have been genetically altered have serious health risks based on research done on rats by The American Academy of Environmental Medicine (AAEM), an international organization of physicians. Risks include infertility, immune system problems, accelerated aging, disruption of insulin and cholesterol regulation, gastrointestinal problems and organ damage. Many AAEM physicians have prescribed non-GMO diets for all patients to improve health conditions. Jeffrey M. Smith, an advocate for non-GMO, says scientific research shows the link of GM food to thousands of sick, sterile, and dead livestock; thousands of toxic and allergic reactions in humans; and damage t...
To help keep crops from being destroyed, conventional farmers use many methods such as pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Nearly 1 billion pounds of these chemicals are used every year (“pesticides”). Because of this excessive use, some scientists express concern that using artificial chemicals in the farming process could produce unhealthy crops. People who ate it over a long period of time could suffer from degraded health and stunted growth (“Organic Foods”). For example, in 1989, the EPA banned the use of Alar which was a chemical used to ripen apples (“Farming, Organics”). This chemical proved to be carcinogenic after causing tumors in mice after several laboratory tests (“Organic Food”). As a result of these findings there was a dramatic increase of the sales for organic food (“Organic Food”). Another study found that Atrazine (one of the most widely used herbicides in the United States) has the potential of being carcinogenic and reducing sperm counts in males (“Organic Food”). This was further proven when evidence was found that chemicals u...
CHEMICHALS: Scientist have defined hundreds of chemicals that can cause cancer in animals. These chemicals are also a cancer hazard for human beings if they become widespread in food supply, the general environment, or the living and working environment. In most cases, a chemical carcinogen enters the food supply as a food addi...
As time has progressed, there has always been an overarching need for high amounts of crop production throughout the world. With the rapid rate of population growth, the need for crops and other sources of nutrients is only increasing. In order to meet these high demands and increase yields, farmers and other agriculturalists have started implementing the use of pesticides. These chemical mixtures are being used in order to prevent, destroy, repel or mitigate any pests from destroying growing crops. However, using pesticides on crops can create massive amounts of pollution, negatively affect an individual’s health, and can spark biodiversity loss within an ecosystem. According to Michael C.R. Alavanja, “Over 1 billion pounds of pesticides are used within the United States (US) each year and approximately 5.6 billion pounds are used worldwide”. With all this in mind, it is clear that pesticides should not be made available to farmers and agriculturalists, and should
, Phomopsis spp., and Stachybotrys spp.[4]. Cancer is the most studied mycotoxicosis among the others, with firewalls, ochratoxins, and fumonisins being the most carcinogenic groups. Other mycotoxins groups cause different diseases; zearalenone and ergopeptine affect the fecundity and growth of humans and animals, deoxynivalenol causes teratogenic diseases, and phomopsin and sporidesmins are harmful to the liver[1, 2, 4]. Different fungi may produce the same mycotoxin, for example, ochratoxin production by the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. On the other hand, the same genera or species of fungi may produce several mycotoxins as seen in Fusarium spp.