Psychological research has recognized the importance of relationships with friends and peers in the development of social skills. Although previous research has looked at the differentiated experiences that children have in play styles, few studies have focused on the precise nature of these differences and how they are manifested as a function of the social context. Fabes, Martin & Hanish (2003) examined social interactions among children. More specifically, they observed children’s naturally occurring interactions over the course of a school year to examine how active-forceful play, play near adults and gender stereotypic activity choices varied among children by the sex of the child, the sex of the partner they interacted with and whether …show more content…
children were playing in dyads or groups. This study found that children interacted with same-sex peers more than with other-sex peers. In exploring gender differences, boys showed greater rates of active-forceful play than did girls. Boys were more forceful in their same-sex play then were girls, regardless of whether in dyads or in groups. Results also revealed that boys engaged in stereotyped activity choices more than girls. Boys were most significantly stereotyped in their activity choices when playing in groups of other boys. In addition, Saracho (1996) examined play and social behavior among young children and possible age differences. In a sample of 2,400 children aged 3 to 5 years of age, Saracho found that age influenced the children’s degree of play involvement. Specifically, older children tended to engage more in a higher levels of play behavior, whereas younger children engaged more in lower levels of play behaviors. Play behaviors were categorized by pretend play events, talkativeness, playfulness, sense of humor and acts of aggression. These findings contribute to the existing works on play patterns among children. The present study aims to learn more about friendship and play patterns, specifically exploring potential gender and age differences among preschool children. The present research hypothesizes that children will spend most of their time in same sex peer play, followed by mix sex peer play and the least amount of time in both alone play and other sex peer play. It was also hypothesized that boys will engage in more stereotypical play. More specifically, boys will engage more than girls in gender stereotyped play, aggressive behavior and rough and tumble play. Lastly, possible age differences in social context will be explored. Method Participants The present study included 12 preschool children, 6 girls and 6 boys, from a local daycare center in upstate New York. Participants were observed in either a toddler classroom or a preschooler classroom. The toddler classroom consisted of children aged 20 months to 2 ½ years old and the preschool classroom consisted of children aged 2 ½ to 4 years old. Measures Coding Categories.
During each observation, the kind of social context in which the child was interacting was recorded. This included A: alone, S: With same sex peer, O: With other sex peer and M: With same and other sex peers. In addition to recording the kind of social context, the type of social behavior (e.g. Aggressive-Behavior, Rough and Tumble Play, Prosocial Cooperative Play and Gender Stereotyped Play) was recorded. Aggressive behavior was defined by either verbal (name calling, teasing, tattling excluding others) or physical (hitting, pushing throwing something, grabbing away toys). Rough and Tumble Play consisted of forceful physical action done in a playful, happy way (e.g., chasing or tackling during a game). Prosocial Cooperative Play consisted of sharing toys/materials with a peer, cooperating, working on a common activity. Lastly, gender stereotyped play consisted of boys playing with trucks, balls, sports and girls playing with dolls, house, kitchen. These social behaviors were logged in a sheet used by the observers. This coding system was developed in order to measure the play patterns among preschool …show more content…
children. Inter-rater reliability. Inter-rater reliability calculations revealed that observers agreed on social context, aggressive behavior, rough and tumble play 96% of the time and 92% of the time on prosocial cooperative play and gender stereotyped play. Procedure Before the observations were conducted, the director of the daycare center sent out a newsletter to the parents of the children, notifying them that various students would be coming throughout the day to observe the children. For this reason, specified child consent was not needed. Participants were observed in either a toddler classroom or preschool classroom. Observations were completed in pairs. Each pair chose two children (1 boy, 1 girl) to observe. Each child was observed for a total of 20 to 30 minutes of free play using a time-sampling approach. In this sampling method, an initial observation is recorded and every 30 seconds another observation is made for the total duration of the observation. The behavior that occurred at the end of the 30 seconds was the only behavior recorded. Each pair of observers made approximately 15 to 20 observations per child. The same strategy was used for both children. In addition, prior to conducting the observations, observers participated in coding exercises using the animated cartoon Tom & Jerry. Observers were not allowed to share information during the observing process. Results First, the means for the alone social context (M = .56), with same sex peer social context (M = .29), with other sex peer social context (M = .06) and with same and other sex peers social context (M = .08) were obtained. Next, to examine possible gender differences in aggressive behavior, rough and tumble play, prosocial cooperative play and gender stereotyped play, independent samples t-test were performed. Results indicated that the mean for boys (M = .15) did not differ significantly from the mean for girls (M = .01) for aggressive behavior, t(10) = 2.06, p = .07. The mean for boys (M = .19) did not differ significantly from girls (M = .09) for the rough and tumble play, t(10) = .62, p = .55. Likewise, the mean for boys (M =.15) also did not differ significantly from girls (M =.17) for prosocial cooperative play, t(10) = -1.75, p = .87. The mean for boys (M = .23) did differ significantly from the girls (M = .14) for gender stereotyped play, t(10) = .92, p = .38. Lastly, independent samples t-test were used to examine any possible age differences.
Results indicated that the mean for younger children (M = .77) did differ significantly from the mean for older children (M = .36) for the ‘alone’ social context, t(10) = 3.43, p = .006. The mean for younger children (M = .09) also differed significantly from older children (M = .50) for the ‘with same sex peer’ social context, t(10) = -3.73, p = .004. On the other hand, the mean for younger children (M = .11) did not differ significantly from older children (M = .01) for the ‘with other sex peer’ social context, t(10) = 2.29, p = .05. The mean for younger children (M = .04) also did not differ significantly from older children (M = .13) for the ‘with same and other sex peers’ social context, t(10) = -2.05, p =
.07. Discussion The main purpose of the study presented is to examine the precise nature of play style differences among preschool children and how they are exhibited as a function of the social context. Possible age differences are also examined. The results of the present study reveal a number of findings. Independent sample t-tests for gender differences were not consistent with the findings in Fabes et al. (2003), where results in the present study found no significant gender differences. Although the independent sample t-tests found a lack of significant results for gender differences, the means were in the direction of what was predicted. The mean for boys or girls were either higher or lower than each other and never the same across all play styles. These results were not consistent with the presented hypotheses that boys will engage more than girls in gender stereotyped play, aggressive behavior and rough and tumble play. On the other hand, significant age differences in social context were found. Although no specific hypothesis was made about age differences in social context, there was significant differences in the ‘with same sex peer’ and the ‘alone’ social context between younger and older children. This is an important trend that supports studies that already exist (Saracho 1996). The present study had a number of strengths and limitations. One of the strengths of this study is that they used preschool children. This is a strength because few current research exists about play patterns among preschool children. This allows for future research to continue to look for better ways to study this. In addition, researchers can possibly provide interventions for those children who may show risk of social functioning difficulties. Coplan et al. (2015) discussed the possibility that children who most frequently engaged in nonsocial behaviors were expected to be at risk for socio-emotional difficulties. One of the significant limitations of the present study was the small sample size (N = 12). Future research should have a bigger sample size. Saracho (1996) had a sample size of 2,400. Although it may be difficult to obtain a sample size this large, perhaps the present study could have included multiple observations on different days. This way more children would have been observed. Perhaps results will differ and possible significant gender differences can be found. Another possible limitation in the present study is the sampling technique. Time sampling technique is useful for behaviors that are longer in duration but not for shorter duration behaviors. Because time sampling only provides information on certain intervals, important behaviors may have been missed. This technique limits to behaviors that occur frequently and not rare behaviors that may also be important. Future research should use combination of sampling techniques. Running records technique would be the most ideal because everything will be recorded. You’re also able to focus on all behaviors and not just on a particular behavior at a given time. Although running records technique is time consuming, in the present study observers only observed each child for 20 to 20 minutes, which is not long. Another limitation could have been the presence of adults. It is possible that in the presence of two adult observers, these children hide their true behaviors. Knowing that they were being observed by adults may have made them less likely to behave how they usually would. Underwood (2005) argues that children care deeply about maintaining composure and are highly likely to mask strong negative feelings. If this is true, perhaps the observers of the present study did not observe play styles as they would naturally occur. Perhaps future studies can use a different method of observation the children that can allow researchers to obtain more accurate data.
Tannen (1986) includes a section on “growing up male and female” which aside from the generalization that “between the ages of five and fifteen… [children] play mostly with friends of their own sex” (p. 142) is mostly true from my experience. The reason why that particular claim is not completely correct is because growing up, I socialized more with girls than with boys. This gave me an opportunity to see both sides of the socialization patterns.
Early Childhood is marked by a time in children’s lives when they develop “a confident self-image, more effective control over their emotions, new social skills, the foundations of morality, and a clear sense of themselves as boy or girl” (Berk, Kauffman & Landrum, 2011, pg. 45). According to Erik Erikson, early childhood is a period of “vigorous unfolding,” one where children have a sense of autonomy and a new sense of purposefulness or initiative (Berk, Kauffman & Landrum, 2011, pg. 45). Play is a means for children to learn about themselves and they begin to adopt the moral and gender-role standards of the society in which they live (Berk, Kauffman & Landrum, 2011). A negative outcome of early childhood is the guilt children feel as a result of excessive punishment and criticism by the adults in their lives (Berk, Kauffman & Landrum, 2011)....
Langlois, J. and Downs, A. (1980) Mothers, fathers, and peers as socialization agents of sex-typed play behaviours in young children. Child Development, 51, (pp 1271-1247).
The participants in this study included a total of 36 boys and 36 girls ranging in age from 3 years to almost 6 years. The average age of the children was 4 years, and 4 months. The control group consisted of 24 children, who would not be exposed to any model. The rest of the 48 children were divided into two groups: one group was exposed to aggressive models and the other group was exposed to nonaggressive models. These groups were then divided again into males and females. They were then further divided so that half of the children were exposed to same-sex models and opposite-sex models. (Leaving 8 experimental groups and 1 control group.)
A dominant debate in current psychological research is one on gender development. Psychologists try to understand relative importance of social and cognitive factors. Various theories are brought up in this field and in this essay two of the most standard theory in this field are going to be explained. The theories covered in this essay relate to aspects of children’s thinking that are central to their gender development. This will include, Kohlberg‘s theory of gender development (1966) and Bandura‘s theory of social cognitive development (1986). Theories like these help psychologists understand how and in which way children understand behaviour and which leads them to do so.
From this research of examining how gender socialization is projection through toys to children, have led to conclusion that in order to prevent children from living by these stereotypes portrayed through toys, parents should encourage gender-neutral and cross-gender play in children at an early age. Just for the mere that their brain is so receptive to knowledge into creating to become the person they are to be in life. Give children a chance to not only have fun while playing with their toys and that there aren’t any pressures on them that this what they should be and that there a mind full options that they can choose from.
Eleanor Maccoby is a renowned psychologist, with publications dating from 1957 to today. She specializes on the socialization of children, developmental change in personality and behavior, relationships of couples after divorce, and parent-child interactions. In this review I focus on her work examining the socialization of children, and parent-child interactions. I link her work between the socialization of children, from their interactions with their parents and with other children, to the interactions of adults. There is a clear parallel between the sex-typed skills learned in child-interactions and those conveyed in adult interactions.
Play is frequently used to asses cognitive and social development because it is cost-effective, can lead to direct interventions, and can be used to supervise progress. (Kelly-Vance & Ryalls, 2008) According to Blakemore, Berenbaum, and Liben (2009) cognitive development can be assessed by cognitive- environmental and developmental- constructivist approaches. Cognitive- environmental refers to the influence that parents and peers have in modeling gender appropriate behaviors. Developmental- constructive refers to the process that children use to create their own concepts of gender and gender-appropriate behaviors.
My choice of research was in the play behaviors of children as well as aggression. Breaking the topic down more, behavior relates to the psychology and the psyche of each individual. The definition of psychology is “science of mind and behavior” (Clavijo, 2013). After reading the article by Clavijo, I have realized that psychology can be defined in three ways such as the study of the mind, the study of behavior, and the study of the mind and behavior. In the text “The Developing Person” by Berger, behavior is learned through social learning. Children learn different behaviors through the observation of others, others being children and adults. Different people have affects on a child’s life that can affect their behavior. A child’s behavior is heavily influenced by their parents. A son may speak aggressively and without respect towards his mother because this is the way that his father speaks to her therefore he feels that is how to communicate with his mother (Berger, 200, 2012). Moving into play behaviors, children learn from other children in how to play. Most believe cognitive growth relies on child’s play time. Vygotsky and Piaget both believe that when children play it is beneficial, but according to Vygotsky, playing enables a child to think outside the box and create their own meaning from objects, using their imagination. Piaget believes that child benefit from playing together because children and sharing their knowledge and making it more concrete ideas and thoughts. There are four stages of plays, with the fourth stage being the highest most complicated play which consists of rules and guidelines for the game. The lowest level or play would be functional play being infants shaking rattles, clapping their hands, or blow...
Witt, S. D. (n.d.). The Influence of Peers on Children’s Socialization to Gender Roles. Retrieved from University of Akron: http://gozips.uakron.edu/~susan8/artpeers.htm
The behaviors that children seem to learn do have gender specific characteristics. Examples of male appropriate behavior includes: aggression, independence and curiosity. Female behaviors reflect the opposite of the male behaviors: passivity, dependence and timidity (Howe, 3). Parents have a strong impact on the sex roles that children acquire. If the sex roles are stereotypical in the home then the children will imitate the behavior that is observed in the home. Simple, parental behaviors such as who drives and who pays for dinner influence the children’s perceptions of sex roles (Seid, 115).
Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., & Reifel, S. (2010, July 20). Characteristics of Social Play | Education.com. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http://www.education.com/reference/article/characteristics-social-play/
Young girls who enjoy action figures and race cars or young boys who enjoy playing with dolls and playing dress up may feel like they are wrong in liking things they believe they are not supposed to like, forcing them to feel like they must push away these “incorrect” interests. Children know from a very young age what interests they are supposed to have and what interests they believe surrounding people would want them to have. In a 2007 study performed by Nancy K. Freeman and her research team for the Early Childhood Education Journal, results showed that “when 3-year-olds separated ‘girl toys’ from ‘boy toys’ 92% of their responses reflected gender-typical stereotypes” (Freeman). Children were also able to distinguish that their parents would not approve of them playing with the opposite gender’s toys. (Freeman). This data shows the profound impact that gender stereotypes have on young children, which would greatly influence their play choices and perhaps choices made throughout their entire lives. Children should not feel such a pressure and should be able to express themselves outside of the gender roles society has assigned to them before birth. In Alice Robb’s opinion
Rough-and-tumble play is a way how children play, by wrestling, rolling, hitting, running, after one another in a friendly way. Childrens tend to play this way with others because of how parents physically play with their babies, mostly how fathers plays with their son. It’s more likely to see this type of play towards the boys because, “prenatal exposure to androgens predisposes boys towards active play” (Berk & Meyers, 2016, pg. 424). Boys tend to have more physical contact while playing rough-and-tumble, such as, wrestling and hitting. While, the girls form of rough-and-tumble, is just running around chasing each other, without much physical contact. Rough-and-tumble helps the children form a “dominance hierarchy”, which is when a stable
Culture has different guidelines about what is appropriate for males and females. Families may socialize babies in gendered ways, like ways without consciously following that path. For babies, the toys and games parents select are often chosen to match what they would like the baby to get into and it also matches the gender that they are. Boys have been proven to be more aggressive and less likely to be fragile with the things they touch or play with, unlike girls who are less aggressive and more fragile with things they play with and touch. Statistics show that girls and boys share the same level of knowledge at the ages of 2-3 but when the become older, they begin to learn different things and what is good or bad to