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Chapter 12 the structure of dna
Chapter 12 the structure of dna
The structure of dna
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Recommended: Chapter 12 the structure of dna
DNA is the foundation of all genetic material found in every living organism on earth. Commonly known as its full name Deoxyribonucleic acid it is an electrically neutral group of atoms held together in a chemical bond known as a molecule. In this case a biomolecule produced by a living organism composed of nucleic acid, carbohydrates and proteins. This mixture coiling in two biopolymer strands forming a double helix. Biopolymers being a biomolecule of a polymer, which is a large molecule, composed of monomers (a molecule that binds chemically to other molecules). These biopolymer strands are composed of thirteen nucleotide monomers bonded in a chain, in turn called a polynucleotide. Nucleotides being singular polynucleotides composed of a nucleobase (containing nitrogen). Being split into four bases each nucleobase is as followed:
• Guanine: Pairing in sequence with cytosine, guanine is derived from purine. Purine is an organic compound structured from a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring (called a pyrimidine-imidazole ring). The base is represented as ‘G’.
• Adenine: Similar to that of Guanine, Adenine is derived from purine. In addition it’s an important part of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the nitrogenous base adenine bonded to a five carbon sugar. This molecule has the ability to phosphorylise and add phosphate groups to other molecules. This allocation of phosphates allows energy to be released. It is this energy which is used in the cells of living organisms.
• Thymine: Combining with Adenine this nucleobase is often replaces with uracil in RNA. It is also the common cause of mutations in DNA. When in the presence of ultraviolet light, radiation causes alterations in the DNA molecule that inhibit normal...
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... in corn, soybeans and cereal grains are found in the indigestible compound phytate that passes through the digestive tract of the pig and is enriched in the manure. The carbohydrates and proteins in this food are digested and absorbed. When manure from ordinary pigs is spread throughout land in areas surrounding intense swine production, it has been shown that there is an accumulation of phosphorus in the soil. Upon heavy rain this phosphorus rich soil runs into water ways in turn increasing the phosphorus concentration of the water. Algae grows layering the body of water causing the reduction in oxygen concentration in the liquid which results in the death of fish and other aquatic animals. The ecosystem of the area is effect, removing food for birdlife and killing plant life. Frequently toxins are produced by the algae and the water is no longer safe to drink.
DNA is the genetic material found in cells of all living organisms. Human beings contain approximately one trillion cells (Aronson 9). DNA is a long strand in the shape of a double helix made up of small building blocks (Riley). The repeat segments are cut out of the DNA strand by a restrictive enzyme that acts like scissors and the resulting fragments are sorted out by electrophoresis (Saferstein 391).
Introduction DNA is the molecule that is responsible for the storing and replicating of genetic material for an organism. The genetic material is the thing that gives an organism its identity. DNA is in the shape of a double helix. It consists of a phosphate group, deoxyribose, and a nitrogenous base. The phosphate groups are synthesised together to create an ester.
of damage in the form of pollution; but rather than let this abundant resource go to waste, why not just fix it? Enviropig—a genetically modified hog programmed to have reduced levels of phosphorus in its feces— could be one of the first steps toward fertilizer that won’t have as large of an impact on our planet, while keeping our crops growing and our store shelves stocked. I believe that this transgenic animal provides our farmers with the best of both worlds: reducing their environmental footprint and maintaining economic stability; although its production is controversial, the moral obligation to do our best to keep our planet fit for future generations
DNA is a molecule that has a repeating chain of identical five-carbon sugars (polymers) linked together from head to tail. It is composed of four ring shaped organic bases (nucleotides) which are Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). It has a double helix shape and contains the sugar component deoxyribose.
DNA replicates by a semi-conservative method. New strands are strands of complementary RNA that is antiparallel to the DNA strand. They do this by pairing up by means of hydrogen bonding.In RNA thymine, is replaced by uracil. In the mRNA sequence, the nucleotide sequence is read as an instructional guide for protein synthesis. Three bases make a codon, which codes for an amino acid. In bacterial transcription the mRNA lacks introns. However in eukaryotic transcription, the mRNA contains introns and moves out of the nucleus so that it can be translated. The basic molecular process is RNA polymerase recognizes the promoter, the RNA polymerase begins to synthesize nucleic acid in a 5'-3' direction, but it reads it from a 3'-5.' The process of transcription in bacteria and eukaryotes is slightly different. In bacteria, transcription produces an mRNA, however in eukaryotes transcription produces a pre-mRNA which then goes for further RNA processing to become an
All three energy systems produce ATP in the form of energy. ATP is composed of the nitrogen base adenine, the pentose (5C) sugar ribose, and three phosphate groups. ATP’s primary source is carbohydrates (Refer to Appendix B). “They are obtained from foods known as complex carbohydrates.” (Amezdroz, et al, 2010) (Refer to Appendix C). When energy is required, “ATP works by losing the endmost phosphate group when instructed to do so by an enzyme.” ATP molecules can be found in all cells(Bris.ac.uk, 2018) (Refer to Appendix D). When the body is at rest there is a “low demand for ATP all energy is produced aerobically.” (Amezdroz, et al,
... (The Issues: Factory Farming, n.d.). Nutrients and bacteria from that waste can also contaminate waterways, disturbing the aquatic ecosystems.
The unprecedented and environmentally friendly Enviropigs from the University of Guelph is beneficial to society due to its modified genes that allow them to produce 30 to 65 percent less phosphorus in their manure, thus reducing the amount of major pollution in the ocean. In addition, Enviropigs better improve the lives of farmers who cannot afford to purchase pig feed with pure phosphorus and also increase the field of consuming transgenic food. The Enviropig, a transgenic Yorkshire pig, was initiated by Dr. Cecil Forsberg, a professor at the University of Guelph, who believed that Enviropigs could improve food production. “When transgenic food animals are accepted by consumers, the Enviropig perhaps would be one of the first innovations to be introduced into swine production,” said Dr Forsberg. “We have demonstrated that the gene can be transferred by breeding through many generations in a stable fashion. Furthermore, the pigs are healthy.” These Enviropigs have altered salivary glands which permits them to consume the phosphorus in feed stuff and reduce the amount of phosphorus they exhaust to prevent destroying the algae in oceans, consequently creating ‘dead zones’.
ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of life. The body’s cells use a special form of energy called adenosine triphosphate to power almost all their activities, such as muscle contraction, protein construction, and transportation of substrates, communication with other cells, activating heat control mechanisms, and dismantling damaged and unused structures.
Let's break down what DNA really is. DNA stands for Deoxy-ribo Nucleic Acid. Deoxy means that there is a missing oxygen atom in the sugar on the second carbon in DNA. It is the only chemical difference between the sugar molecule Deoxy-ribose and the regular sugar ribose. Ribo means that there is a sugar. Now, what does the word Nucleic mean? The word comes from a German word Nuklein, meaning comes from the nucleus. Therefore, DNA is an acid that has sugar, but has no oxygen. DNA is made of nucleotides, but what does that really mean? There are only 4 types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. All 4 of these are nucleic acids. These bond together with a Hydrogen bond. Adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine. The “backbone” of the DNA is the phosphate group and the ribo group bonded by covalent bonds. What is the difference between RNA and DNA? Well, as discussed before, there is one oxygen atom missing from the sugar in DNA, but there are more di...
Phasing out animal agriculture and replacing it with stronger, safer plant cultivation would greatly reduce pollution released into the environment as animal waste, burning fossil fuels, and contaminated water runoff. The animal waste produced in factory farms is dumped into immense open-air lago...
The production process of meat requires huge amount of pesticides, fuel, feeds and fertilizers, which leads to the release of greenhouse gases, manure and a lot of toxic chemicals to our air and water. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), animals on U.S. factory farms produce about 500 million tons of manure each year. Because there is no animal sewage processing plants, it is most frequently stored in massive open-air waste lagoons and are prone to leaks. Runoff from factory farms is one of the leading causes of pollution in our rivers and lakes. The EPA notes that bacteria and viruses can be carried by the runoff and that leads to contamination of
All living things on earth are made up of cells that contain DNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is the genetic material of living things that can be found in the nucleus of the cells (Alcamo, 1996). It contains the genes and the genetic codes that contain the information that are essential for life’s functions, which are passed from generation to generation. DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains twisted around each other in the form of a double helix. According to Alcamo (1996), each strand of the DNA double helix can act as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand as it contains a sequence of nucleotides that is exactly complementary to the nucleotide sequence of its partner strand.
Manure may not be a luxury topic, but it is currently a hot topic for the agriculture industry. Presently, there are about 20 million pigs being raised in Iowa alone, and Iowa’s lush cropland greatly benefits from the manure output. Manure provides the soil with nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium; improves suitability for planting; increases water holding capacity; reduces erosion; and supplies an energy source for microbial activity (Murphy, 1996). Although the soil quality is improved, there are some concerns about manure. The main issues involve air and water quality, such as odor and runoff (Hatfield et al., 1998).
DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. It's full name is deoxyribonucleic acid. It consists of nitrogenous bases, which include ...