There are six mechanisms of cell injury; ATP depletion, reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ca2+ entry, mitochondrial damage, membrane damage, and protein misfolding/DNA damage. ATP depletion is when there is a loss of mitochondrial ATP and decreased ATP synthesis. This will result in cellular swelling, decreased protein synthesis, decreased membrane transport, and lipogenesis, all changes that contribute to loss of integrity of plasma membrane. Reactive oxygen species is when a lack of oxygen causes a progression of cell injury in ischemia. Destruction of cell membranes and cell structure is caused by activated oxygen species. Ca2+ entry is when ischemia and certain chemicals cause an increase in cytosolic Ca2+. This increase of Ca2+ causes damage
Margination and adhesion to the endothelium, in which accumulation of leukocytes occurs along the endothelial wall for adhesion. Afterward, these adhesions cause the separation of endothelial cells, allowing the leukocytes to extend and Transmigrate through the vessel walls. Followed by the response of chemical mediators(chemotaxis) that influence cell migration via an energy directed process which triggers the activation of Phagocytosis, in which monocytes, neutrophils, and tissue macrophages are activated to engulf and degrade cellular debris and
Sepsis is defined as an exaggerated, overwhelming and uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response to an initially localised infection or tissue injury, which may lead to severe sepsis and septic shock if left untreated (Daniels, 2009; Robson & Daniels, 2013; Dellinger et al, 2013; Perman, Goyal & Gaieski, 2012; Vanzant & Schmelzer, 2011). Septic shock can be classified by acute circulatory failure as a result of massive vasodilation, increased capillary permeability and decreased vascular resistance in the body, causing refractory hypotension despite adequate fluid resuscitation. This leads to irreversible tissue ischaemia, end organ failure and ultimately, death (McClelland & Moxon, 2014; Sagy, Al-Qaqaa & Kim, 2013, Dellinger et al, 2013).
Also, hypoxia, which is a lack of oxygen, is another pathological physiological outcome of sepsis as less oxygen is reaching the tissue; this is due to the fact that there is less oxygen in the blood.
Lipid peroxidation refers to the oxidative degradation of lipids. It is the process in which free radicals "steal" electrons from the lipids in cell membranes, resulting in cell damage. This process proceeds by a free radical chain reaction mechanism. It most often affects polyunsaturated fatty acids, because they contain multiple double bonds in between which lie methylene bridges (-CH2-) that possess especially reactive hydrogens. As with any radical reaction, the reaction consists of three major steps: initiation, propagation, and termination.
Ben Roethlisberger, commonly known as Big Ben is a quarterback player of Pittsburgh Steelers who suffered a Lisfranc injury in a game. He was carted off because of his serious foot injury that will compromise his mobility and scramble ability.
Acute inflammation is triggered when the human body experiences trauma or injury. The signs and symptoms of Acute Inflammation include redness, pain, swelling, heat and loss of function (Porth 2011, p. 55). In Acute Inflammation there are two different stages, the vascular stage involves the blood vessels and how blood flow is involved and they changes that happen after injury has occurred and the cellular stage of Acute Inflammation, the cells that are involved are the leukocytes and neutrophils (Porth 2011, p.
Some cells cause inflammation of the tissue, which raises the temperature of the injured area and is adaptive because it prevents pathogens from entering and spreading into the host. The area of injured tissue also remains very sensitive to pain in order to avoid any type of stimuli
Over the past years, stem cell research has been very famous through the scientific community and the media. Stem cells are pluripotent cells that are present in every single organism on Earth. The power of stem cells are beyond imagination. Stem cells have the power to turn into any type of cells. Some examples are, blood cells, nerves, cardiac muscles, and the list goes on and on. The scientific community has recently taken a large interest in stem cells. They have used stem cells to treat horrible misfortunes that people have been diagnosed with. Some examples of the diseases that are being treated by the use of stem cells are, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, spinal cord issues, strokes, diabetes, damaged organs, and even cancer! However, despite the infinite potential for medical treatments, the topic of stem cells is surrounded by enormous amounts of controversy. The questions that feed the controversy are about how the stem cells are acquired and about how the gained knowledge would be used. However, it is necessary for mankind to keep stem cell research alive in order to save lives while taking care of any unethical topics about it.
As known by now, Tissue Engineering is the combination of the cell, engineering material and suitable biochemistry factors that are used to improve the biological functions. There are 4 types of Tissue Engineering, mainly which are Autograft, Isograft, Allograft and lastly Xenograft.
Well, throughout apoptosis cells undergo a life cycle. Throughout this cycle, cells undergo a programmed cell death, or “cellular suicide” when they receive certain cues. The process of apoptosis is quite simple. First, the cells shrink and develop blebs on their surface. The DNA in the nucleus gets chopped up into small pieces, and some organelles of the cell break down into fragments. The entire cell splits up into small chunks, each neatly enclosed in a package of membrane. The chunks then release signals that attract phagocytic debris-eating cells. In addition, some chunks display a lipid molecule called phosphatidylserine on their surface. It then lets the phagocytes bind and eat the cell fragments. Obviously the apoptosis process plays an incredibly crucial role in cell death, as it controls how humans stop growing, when we are producing millions of cells every second. The process of apoptosis has a very effective, yet simple cycle which recycles cells, in the end maintaining the number of cells in a
As time progressed, cell mobility became increasingly stagnant. After 30 minutes, it was observed that some cells had shrunk while others had lysed (Table 3). Hemolysis of the cells was not surprising since red blood cells are particularly sensitive to NH4Cl. This is due to the fact that NH4Cl, while a large molecule, can dissociate into an NH3+ and Cl- (Phillips et al. 1983). NH3 is then able to cross into the membrane of RBCs, thus causing a transmembrane exchange between Cl- and HCO3-, thus leading to the lysis of the cell (Hemker et al.
heart failure, and atherosclerosis which may cause ischemic stroke due to blockage of blood .
The Cell, the fundamental structural unit of all living organisms. Some cells are complete organisms, such as the unicellular bacteria and protozoa, others, such as nerve, liver, and muscle cells, are specialized components of multicellular organisms. In another words, without cells we wouldn’t be able to live or function correctly. There are Animal Cells and Plant Cells. In Biology class the other day we studied the Animal Cell. We were split into groups of our own and we each picked a different animal cell slide to observe. My group chose the slide,'; Smeared Frog Blood ';.
In every cell within an organism, the most crucial question is to survive or to die. In life, cell death is required so as to allow normal function. Cell death can be either physiological or programmed, in a process known as apoptosis. Cells that undergo apoptosis generally produce a wide range of morphological changes. These changes include shrinkage of cell, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation. Apoptosis occurs due to the presence of a family known as the caspases. Apoptotic cells are then cleared by phagocytosis in vivo, where phagocytes swallow up the dying cells and digest them. [1]
Cell death is not a random process, but occurs is a very organized programmed sequence of molecular events. This programmed cell death is called apoptosis. Apoptosis is a very clean death as compared to that of necrosis, where the cells swell and burst spilling their contents over their neighbors and eliciting an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is mediated by proteolytic enzymes called caspases, which cleave certain intracellular proteins to help kill the cell. There are two major classes of caspases initiator and executioner. Initiators as their name implies, iniate the apoptotic process and executioners catalyze cell wide protein cleavage events that will kill the cell. Apoptosis is a cascade event meaning there are multiple activation