Aminoglycosides are broad spectrum antibiotics that are most effective against aerobic gram-negative bacteria. Aminoglycosides are distinguishable by the aminocyclitol ring; which is a six membered ring with amino group substituents ("amingolycosides," ).
A highly conserved aminocyclitol ring, a central scaffold that is linked to various aminosugar moieties. The aminocyclitol ring is comprised primarily of 2-deoxystreptamine. And has 1,3-diamino functionality and three or four hydroxyl groups that provide anchoring points for aminosugar. Aminoglycosides can be divided into 3 subclasses, depending on the substitution pattern: 4-monosubsituted, or 4, 5- or 4, 6- disubstituted. Aminoglycosides in each class show close structural resemblance. Although, 2-deoxystreptamine or 2 deoxy-myo-inosa-1,3-diamine is actually derived from D-glucose-6-phosphate biosynthetically, the numbering system is based on streptamine’s biogenic precursor myo-inosa. (Chittapragada, Roberts & Ham, 2009)
There are various types of aminoglycosides currently used, the most common being; amikacin, gentamicin, tobramycin and neomycin. The mechanism of action for all aminoglycosides is by inhibiting protein synthesis in the bacterial cell by binding to ribosome 30S sub unit ("amingolycosides,”). This is accomplished by passive diffusion across the bacterial cell membrane and then active transport across the cytoplasmic membrane to bind to ribosome 30S ("amingolycosides,”). Thus, inhibiting protein synthesis by inducing a misread of the genetic code mRNA. The entire process is oxygen dependent, which is why aminoglycosides are most effective against aerobic bacteria ("amingolycosides,”).
Aminoglycosides are usually a last resort antibiotic due to th...
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The purpose of this experiment was to learn and preform an acid-base extraction technique to separate organic compounds successfully and obtaining amounts of each component in the mixture. In this experiment, the separation will be done by separatory funnel preforming on two liquids that are immiscible from two layers when added together. The individual components of Phensuprin (Acetylsalicylic acid, Acetanilide, and Sucrose as a filler) was separated based upon their solubility and reactivity, and the amount of each component in the mixture was obtained. Also, the purity of each component will be determined by the melting point of the component.
called an active site. This active site is made by a few of the amino
Another campaign developed by the CDC is the Transatlantic Taskforce on Antimicrobial Resistance (TATFAR). This task force focused on urgent antimicrobial resistance issues and appropriate therapeutic use of antimicrobial drugs in the medical and veterinary communities. Also, prevention of both healthcare- and community-associated drug-resistant infections, and strategies for improving the pipeline of new antimicrobial drugs()
Throughout many generations the success of medicine has been dog-eared throughout history, from penicillin being created through colonized bacteria on an agar plate to chemotherapy being used to combat the ailments of cancer, we as a society rely a great deal on the effectiveness of medicine. Due to this realization one can agree that it is imperative that the medications that are being distributed and placed on the pharmaceutical market are tested and analyzed at all angles and perspectives to ensure they work effectively and successfully resulting in moderate to no side effects. The progressive industry of medicine has greatly increased since the early nineties thanks to the advancement in medical technology making
the resulting amino acid would be sodium glycinate (see fig. 3), an example of a
Have you ever felt safe with someone, even though by all appearance you should be terrified? In Crispin, written by Avi, “Asta’s son” faces a similar dilemma. Everyone agrees that Crispin remained with Bear after being captured, but some believe that Crispin should have stayed with Bear and some believe Crispin should not have stayed with Bear.
Ostrove, N. M. (2004). Statement of Nancy M. Ostrove, Ph.D., Deputy Director, Division of Drug.
Antibiotics have been critical in fighting bacteria-caused diseases for the past 60 years. Bacteria in the human body are able to reproduce at a rapid rate and this is a huge problem when the bacteria are disease-causing. Antibiotics are drugs that are able to stop bacterial growth, and kill off bacteria in living organisms.
To get a clear insight of how pathogenic bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, one has to understand first how antibiotics work. Antibiotics are manufactured to interact with a specific target molecule produced by the bacteria. The target molecule performs protoplasm in the bacterium that is the driving cause of cellular growth and survival of the pathogen. Antibiotics hinder the growth and survival of the bacteria so that the bacteria can die. To inhibit the target’s function, an antibiotic must do three things. First, it has to reach the site of the target molecule. Second, the antibiotic has to persist at the site to have its effect. Third, the antibiotic needs to prevent the proper formation of cell walls and stop metabolic processes performed by the bacteria to prevent protein synthesis.
Bacteria can be prevented from growing and/or living with the use of antibiotics. Antibiotics combat bacteria several ways by preventing the cell wall from developing properly, protein synthesis hindrance, interferes with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) production by impeding cell division, interfering with outer-membrane and plasma function, killing the cell (Aziz, 2013).
During the period of American slavery, the notion of flight was a myth passed down among African Americans about enslaved Africans who could fly home, providing hope for potential freedom. Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon, a rich exploration of African American identity, heritage, and self-exploration, frequently uses the motif of flight in her world of magical realism. Through characters like Robert Smith and Solomon, Morrison initially portrays flight as a means of escape marked by abandonment and death. However, Morrison’s depiction of Milkman’s journey of self-discovery and Pilate’s strong character demonstrates that flight is not only a physical escape, but also an emotional journey toward self-acceptance and empowerment of others. Originally,
Every year, antibiotic-resistant bacteria are threatening more and more people. As much of a problem as it is, many people are not educated on the term drug resistance. Since it is such a growing concern, it becomes confusing as to why drug resistance is occurring and what can be done to prevent it. Because drug resistance is such a health problem, determining what it is, how these bacteria can acquire the antimicrobial agents, and the possible solutions to the resistance are the types of actions that need to be taken in order to have a better understanding of how truly powerful these drug resistant bacteria are.
Penicillin works by virtue of its beta-lactam ring that specifically binds to microbial enzymes in bacterial cell walls, and keeps the cell membrane structures from linking up. Eventually, if the bacterium keeps dividing, the cell membrane will become increasingly weaker and lyse. The beta-lactam ring is very simple in and of itself, but its ability to remain potent with several different functional groups attached to it makes it spectacular in its applications.
A polypeptide chain is a series of amino acids that are joined by the peptide bonds. Each amino acid in a polypeptide chain is called a residue. It also has polarity because its ends are different. The backbone or main chain is the part of the polypeptide chain that is made up of a regularly repeating part and is rich with the potential for hydrogen-bonding. There is also a variable part, which comprises the distinct side chain. Each residue of the chain has a carbonyl group, which is good hydrogen-bond acceptor, and an NH group, which is a good hydrogen-bond donor. The groups interact with the functional groups of the side chains and each other to stabilize structures. Proteins are polypeptide chains that have 500 to 2,000 amino acid residues. Oligopeptides, or peptides, are made up of small numbers of amino acids. Each protein has a precisely defined, unique amino acid sequence, referred to as its primary structure. The amino acid sequences of proteins are determined by the nucleotide sequences of genes because nucleotides in DNA specify a complimentary sequence in RNA, which specifies the amino acid sequence. Amino acid sequences determine the 3D structures of proteins. An alteration in the amino acid sequence can produce disease and abnormal function. All of the different ways
The discovery of antibiotics is attributed to Alexander Fleming who discovered the first antibiotic to be commercially used (Penicillin) in approximately 1928. An antibiotic, also known as an antimicrobial, is a medication that is taken in order to either destroy or slow the growth rate of bacteria. Antibiotics are integral to the success of many medical practises, such as; surgical procedures, organ transplants, the treatment of cancer and the treatment of the critically ill. (Ramanan Laxminarayan, 2013)