Why Did Copernicus Question The Geocentric Theory Of The Universe?

Geocentric – the universe is a series of concentric spheres with a fixed earth at is center that is imperfect and constantly changing; the tenth sphere is heaven where God and the saved souls are located

Heliocentric – the motionless sun is at the center of the universe and the planets revolve around it in circular orbits; earth rotates daily on its axis as it revolves around the sun

Philosophe – intellectuals of the Enlightenment who were literary people, professors, journalists, economists, political scientists, and social reformers

1. Why did Copernicus question the geocentric theory of the universe?

Nicholas Copernicus questioned the geocentric theory of the universe because he thought that it did not include information about the motions of the heavenly bodies.

The geocentric theory saw the universe to be made up of concentric spheres and the motionless earth to be the center of it. As earth was constantly changing, the heavenly bodies were perfect and the tenth sphere represented heaven. Copernicus’ heliocentric theory proposed that the sun was motionless and the center of the universe while other planets revolved around it. Instead of the sun revolving around earth, earth rotated on its axis daily and revolved around the sun each year in the heliocentric theory. However, both the geocentric and heliocentric theory agreed that the heavenly spheres moved in circular orbits. Not only did Copernicus saw the geocentric theory to be somewhat incorrect, but that his heliocentric theory to be more valid.
2. How did the work of Kepler and Galileo aid in the destruction of the geocentric view?
Not only was Johannes Kepler able to aid the destruction of the geocentric view by his laws of planetary motion, but he also partially supported the Copernican system. Copernicus believed that the planets’ orbits were circular and that the sun was at the center, but Kepler’s first law debunked that belief. Instead, the planetary orbits were elliptical and the sun was at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo also aided in the destruction of the geocentric by proving that the universe was not perfect and unchanging. The geocentric theory stated that earth was the only one that was imperfect and constantly changing, whereas Galileo’s observations showed that the universe was made up of similar materials like earth. Through his telescope, Galileo noticed that there were mountains in the moon, sunspots, and four moons that revolved around Jupiter.
3. How did the studies of Isaac Newton change our view of the universe?
The studies of Isaac Newton changed our view of the universe by introducing the three laws of motion and his world-machine concept. However, Newton’s world-machine concept about how the universe was a regulated machine governed by natural laws in space, motion, and absolute time was popular until the 20th century. By the 20th century, a better and new perspective of the universe was introduced by Einstein’s concept of relativity. Despite Newton’s failed world-machine concept, his three laws of motion still govern the objects on earth and planetary bodies. His gravitational law explained why planetary bodies moved in elliptical orbits around the sun and how gravity caused objects to be attracted to other objects. Furthermore his gravitational law explained the motions that occur in the universe, thus creating a whole new concept of the universe.
4. How did Isaac Newton and John Locke pave the way for the Enlightenment?
The Enlightenment was defined by the movement of intellectuals who were inspired by the accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution in the late 17th century and 18th century. Perhaps the two most popular figures that paved the way for the Enlightenment were Isaac Newton and John Locke. Newton’s ability of discovering natural laws through reason inspired those to think that they too could improve the society by reason. The belief of being able to discover the natural laws that control politics, justice, religion, and economics through reason were inspirations for the Enlightenment. This belief was also supported by Locke’s philosophy that humans were born with blank minds that can be transformed by their surroundings. As a result, the intellectuals thought if one’s environment was controlled by “perfect” influences, then a “perfect” society would emerge while applying reason to discoveries of natural laws.
5.

Describe each thinker’s contribution to the Enlightenment: (a) Montesquieu, (b) Voltaire, (c) Diderot, (d) Rousseau, (e) Wollstonecraft

a. Montesquieu was famous for his political works and analysis, but perhaps his most important contribution to the Enlightenment was his analysis of England’s monarchy. England’s constitution demonstrated a system of separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers that allowed them to check each other’s powers. From Montesquieu’s analysis, he concluded that a separation of powers allowed the most freedom and security for a state. His political thoughts of checks and balances even affected and shaped the U.S. Constitution.

b. Voltaire was a strong supporter of religious tolerance and deism through his pamphlets, novels, letters, plays, histories, and philosophical essays. He scoffed at the ideas of religious fanaticism, superstition, and intolerance. Moreover, deism was a popular belief among Voltaire and other philosophes during the Enlightenment due to its idea of the Newtonian world-machine as a clock that ran on its own natural laws. Perhaps through Voltaire’s literature works he was able to spread his beliefs to other intellectuals during the

Enlightenment.
c. Diderot’s greatest contribution to the Enlightenment was perhaps his enormous Encyclopedia that consisted of a collection of knowledge. Although its purpose was to transform the way of thinking, it was used as a weapon for the philosophes to advocate for a better society. The philosophes envisioned an improved society that was different from the old French society by refining its social, political, and legal aspects. Furthermore, many copies of the Encyclopedia were sold to various occupations, thus spreading its ideas as it circulated.
d. Rousseau’s contributions to the Enlightenment were his political beliefs. He believed that people were enslaved to the government by its general will even if they placed their own self-interest before it due to society’s influence of it being ethical. In other words, people allowed themselves to be governed partly for their self-interests, but also due to society’s coercion. One of the Enlightenment’s most popular educational beliefs was Rousseau’s belief that children’s instinct should be encouraged and find balance between heart and mind. Unlike Rousseau’s other beliefs, his view on women to act like a proper wife and mother was not as popular.
e. Wollstonecraft, an English writer, greatly influenced modern European feminism in the Enlightenment. She wrote how women should be treated as equals to men, and that the Enlightenment originated from the idea that reason is in all human beings. From Wollstonecraft’s point of view, women were human beings that inhibited reason just like men. As a result, if women and men both had reason, then they were entitled to the same rights socially, economically, and politically.