DISCUSSION
Mucormycosis, most commonly caused by Rhizopus species (6, 15, 60), is a life-threatening emerging fungal infection that occurs in patients with increased available serum iron (e.g. from diabetic ketoacidosis [DKA]), in patients immunocompromised by neutropenia or medications (15), or in trauma patients (61)(62). The infection is generally acquired by inhalation of spores that are ubiquitous in nature and cause either rhino-orbital (almost exclusively in DKA patients) or lung (mainly in neutropenic leukemic patients) disease (6, 15, 60). The infection is remarkably angiotropic, and rapidly disseminates hematogenously to infect other organs (6, 15, 60). Initiation of infection entails interaction of spores with nasal or lung epithelial cells. Further, damage to and penetration of the endothelial cell lining of the blood vessels is an important factor in hematogenous dissemination. Because even aggressive surgical and antifungal treatments are often ineffective, mucormycosis kills 40% to 100% of those afflicted (7, 63). The obvious unmet need for new, effective treatments and preventive strategies has been the driving force of our laboratory.
Our laboratory previously elucidated the process by which R. delemar invade and damages human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC)(42). R. delemar
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delemar remained unknown. The goal of my thesis was to identify these proteins that enabled interactions between nasal/lung epithelial cells and the fungus. Our hypothesis: Finding the receptors on nasal and lung epithelial cells that bind to R. delemar and result in damage to both mammalian cell lines would help in understanding how the infection is initiated. Such knowledge can potentially be used to design blocking strategies to prevent the initiation of
middle of paper ... ...323. Lorch, JM, CU Meteyer, MJ Behr, JG Boyles, PM Cryan, AC Hicks, AE Ballmann, et al. 2011. The. "Experimental infection of bats with Geomyces destructans causes white-nose syndrome". Nature. The. 480 (7377): 376-8.
Bordetella pertussis is a highly communicable agent and is transmitted person-to-person via airborne droplets or direct contact with discharges from the respiratory mucous membranes of an infected person. This small, gram-negative coccobacillus is non-motile, aerobic and fastidious. B. pertussis colonizes the respiratory tract including the mouth, nose, throat and beginning of the lungs of young children worldwide. The bacteria bind to ciliated cells in the respiratory mucosa by producing adhesions. Filamentous hemagglutinin on the cell surface and pertussis toxin (Ptx) both help the bacteria in binding. Filamentous hemagglutinin binds to the galactose residues on the glycolipid of the ciliated cells. Ptx, in its cell-bound form, binds to the glycolipid lactosylceramide, which is also found on the ciliated cells. Ptx binds to the surface of phagocytes as well, causing phagocytosis of the bacteria. This mechanism may lead to enhanced survival as an intracellular parasite. Adding to its many purposes, Ptx deregulates the host cell adenylate cyclase activity. The A subunit of this AB toxin, affects the G protein responsible for inhibiting adenylate cyclase. This leads to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) creating detrimental metabolic changes in the host cells.
Studies have shown pertactin, a 69kDa non fimbrial outer membrane protein, facilitates attachment of the bacteria to ciliated respiratory cells. Experiments conducted on humans to test the role of pertactin have shown no significant effect except with the results from Bassinet (4). Furthermore, filamentous haemagglutinin confers infection by attaching to the host cells in the lower respiratory tract. It is about 2nm wide, and 50n...
The patient is a 30 year old male with an active bacterial infection on his right leg attacking his Integumentary system. The patient is from Tanzania, Africa but came back to work in a factory that produces plastic. If he has Cellulitis, it can get bad enough to travel to other organs like the Liver and Kidney and cause failure. If this happens, Edema can form, usually on one half of the body; this is the Urinary system being attacked. The main system being attacked is the Lymphatic system because Cellulitis attacks the lymphatic draining system. For Cellulitis to travel to organs, it had to go through the blood, so the cardiovascular system is also in effect.
For medical care, no treatment is needed for those who are asymptomatic, just monitoring for mild symptoms (2). For those who cannot fight the disease as easily as the majority, there are an array of treatments available. To start, blood cultures should be performed in all patients, and sputum cultures should be taken for those with chronic histoplasmosis (2). Chest radiology would be preferred for individuals with acute pulmonary histoplasmosis, steroids and possible laser treatment for ocular histoplasmosis, and CT scans for those with cerebral histoplasmosis (2). With prolonged symptoms of more than 4 weeks, medical therapy via itraconazole is recommended for 6-12 weeks, followed by chest imaging (2). Bronchiectasis caused by the microbe is treated with either a bronchoscopy or surgical removal (3). Phrenological treatments to histoplasmosis include amphorcetericin B, ketoconazole, itraconazole, and fluconazole (3). Currently, antifungal agents are being developed to offer alternative treatment (3). To successfully survive as a pathogen, the virus must change itself on a micro level to survive changing conditions, macrophages, and other threats to the fungi’s reproduction (4). Being able to go from an environmental mold to an intercellular yeast is extremely useful for a microbe in an ecosystem that fights for control of those it infects (4). These advantages present within histoplasmosis are what keeps it as a cause of respiratory and systemic disease in mammals (4). There are plenty of treatments available to accommodate all forms of histoplasmosis, making it a microbe that is very simple to cure, despite how hard it tries to
Antiviral creams: Prescription antiviral creams, such as imiquimod (Aldara, Zyclara), are often effective in removing Molluscum Contagiosum lesions over time.
Disease and parasitism play a pervasive role in all life. Many of these diseases start with microparasites, which are characterized by their ability to reproduce directly within an individual host. They are also characterized by their small size, short duration of infection, and the production of an immune response in infected and recovered individuals. Microparasites which damage hosts in the course of their association are recognized as pathogens. The level of the interaction and the extent of the resultant damage depends on both the virulence of the pathogen, as well as the host defenses. If the pathogen can overcome the host defenses, the host will be damaged and may not survive. If on the other hand the host defenses overcome the pathogen, the microparasite may fail to establish itself within the host and die.
The majority of clinical cases of laminitis occur at pasture where there is an accumulation of rapidly fermentable non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) such as fructans, simple sugars or starches (Geor, 2010). Pasture-associated laminitis has major economic and welfare implications in the equine sector. Increased risk factors include insulin resistance, increased insulin secretory response, hypertriglyceridaemia and obesity (Asplin, et al., 2007;Carter, et al., 2009 and de Laat, et al., 2010). Insulin resistance has been associated with a number of problems in the horse, most notably laminitis. Insulin resistance can be defined as a physiological condition in which cells have a diminished response to normal actions of the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced but the cells become resistant and are less capable in transporting glucose from the bloodstream to muscle and other tissues. In horses, insulin resistance is associated with a number of diseases such as Equine Metabolic Syndrome (Powell, et al., 2002; Hoffman, et al., 2003;Vick, et al., 2006 and Frank, et al., 2009), Equine Cushing Disease (McGowan, et al., 2004 and Walsh, et al., 2009) and Laminitis (Treiber, et al., 2006;Bailey, et al., 2007;McGowan, 2008 and Geor, 2008). Obesity and insulin resistance in ponies has become a common problem and there is a growing awareness on the role that diet and exercise has to play (Jeffcott, et al., 1986; Frank, et al., 2006 and Vick & Adams, 2007). Over-expressed adipocytokines, such as leptin, have been suggested to impair insulin signalling and cause the up regulation of inflammatory cytokines. This then further contributes to impaired insulin signalling and endothelial dysfunction (Radin, et al., 2009). The restriction of energy throu...
Tuberculosis or TB is an airborn infection caused by inhaled droplets that contain mycobacterium tuberculosis. When infected, the body will initiate a cell-mediated hypersensitivity response which leads to formation of lesion or cavity and positive reaction to tuberculin skin test (Kaufman, 2011). People who have been infected with mycobacteria will have a positive skin test, but only ones who have active TB will show signs and symtoms. Basic signs and symptoms include low grade fever, cough with hemoptysis, and tachypnea. They may also show pleuristic chest pain, dyspnea, progressive weight loss, fatigue and malaise (Porth, 2011).
Chronic bronchitis is a disorder that causes inflammation to the airway, mainly the bronchial tubules. It produces a chronic cough that lasts three consecutive months for more than two successive years (Vijayan,2013). Chronic Bronchitis is a member of the COPD family and is prominently seen in cigarette smokers. Other factors such as air pollutants, Asbestos, and working in coal mines contributes to inflammation. Once the irritant comes in contact with the mucosa of the bronchi it alters the composition causing hyperplasia of the glands and producing excessive sputum (Viayan,2013). Goblet cells also enlarge to contribute to the excessive secretion of sputum. This effects the cilia that carry out the mechanism of trapping foreign bodies to allow it to be expelled in the sputum, which are now damaged by the irritant making it impossible for the person to clear their airway. Since the mechanism of airway clearance is ineffective, the secretion builds up a thickened wall of the bronchioles causing constriction and increasing the work of breathing. The excessive build up of mucous could set up pneumonia. The alveoli are also damaged enabling the macrophages to eliminate bacteria putting the patient at risk for acquiring an infection.
"Bloodborne Pathogens : MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia." U.S National Library of Medicine. U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.
Cystitis is the medical term for inflammation of the urinary bladder. Most of the time, the inflammation is caused by a bacterial infection, and it’s called a urinary tract infection. A bladder infection can be painful and annoying, and it can become a serious health problem if the infection spreads to your kidney.
A urinary tract infection is a very common infection that can happen to anybody. A urinary tract infection usually occurs when bacteria enters the urethra and multiples in the urinary system. The Urinary tract includes the kidneys, the thin tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder (ureters), and the main tube that carries the urine from the bladder (urethra). Women, men, and children are all immune to this infection. Women have the highest chances of getting it. In the Urinary tract, the main links of the ureters help get rid of any bacteria that tries to enter the urine, and the bladder helps prevent urine from backing up into the kidneys.
T. pallidum is highly sensitive to oxygen and has a decreased ability to survive when not in human body temperature environments 1. The mode of transmission is through sexual contact or vertical transmission from the mother to the fetus. T. pallidum lacks the lipopolysaccharide which is the endotoxin normally present in gram negative bacteria1. The bacterium does produce many lipoproteins which are thought to prompt the inflammatory mediators through the recognition of toll-like receptors1. T. pallidum has a virulence factor of being highly motile due to its ability to propel itself forward by rotating on a longitudinal axis1. The spirochetes easily penetrate the skin or mucosal membranes and spread throughout the lymph nodes and then the blood circulation, affecting many parts in the body1.
Mycoplasma is a tiny pocket of matter surrounded by a cytoplasmic membrane in which inside each cell contains agar. Do to the fact that it does not have a cell wall its life cycle is affected by this and “it is classified as bacteria for containing RNA and DNA” (Jones). Much like parasites, mycoplasma lives within another organism such as a human being and receives its necessary nutrients by the process of exchanging compounds through its membrane. “Reproduction for mycoplasma is quite different from that of regular bacteria” (Jones). Research by the University of Babylon suggests that it reproduces from fragmentation of its DNA since no cell wall is available to divide and reform for a new cell.