Tuberculosis or TB is an airborn infection caused by inhaled droplets that contain mycobacterium tuberculosis. When infected, the body will initiate a cell-mediated hypersensitivity response which leads to formation of lesion or cavity and positive reaction to tuberculin skin test (Kaufman, 2011). People who have been infected with mycobacteria will have a positive skin test, but only ones who have active TB will show signs and symtoms. Basic signs and symptoms include low grade fever, cough with hemoptysis, and tachypnea. They may also show pleuristic chest pain, dyspnea, progressive weight loss, fatigue and malaise (Porth, 2011).
Signs and Symptoms of Active Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MT) is a slender, rod-shaped, aerobic bacillus which causes tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborn infection which is transmitted via inhaling droplet nuclei circulating in the air. These droplets are expelled from the respiratory secretion of people who have active TB through coughing, sneezing, and talking (Porth, 2011). Some bacilli stay in the upper airway and are swept out by mucus-secreting goblet cells and cilia on the surface of the airway. Others will escape from this protective mechanism to travel and settle down at alveoli (Porth, 2011). Local inflammatory reaction occurs and macrophages are cells that act as next line defense mechanism to fight with mycobacteria. First they engulf micobacteria, try to reduce their strength and ability, and kill them. In the same way they send antigen to helper T lymphocytes to initiate a cell-mediated immune response (Knechel, 2009). The infected macrophages will send produced cytokines and enzymes to breakdown mycobacteria’s protein. It is the released cytokines that attract T ly...
... middle of paper ...
...d lymphokines. Lymphokines will attract other inflammatory cells into the site. This response generally peaks in 48 hours after PPD injection. Redness at the injection site and induration resulting from cellular infiltration represent the immune response to the skin test (Nayak, 2012).
Conclusion
TB is an airborn infection that affects primary to the lung. Not all infected person show sign and symptoms. Only peole who have active TB show signs and symtoms such as low grade fever, cough with hemoptysis, tachypnea, pleuristic chest pain, dyspnea, progressive weight loss, fatigue and malaise. PPD skin test is a way to detect mycobacteria infection. A positive PPD skin test is the result of a specific immune response against the antigen introduced into the skin of a person who has been exposed to mycobacteria either from previous infected with TB or from receiving BCG.
The immunologic events that are happening at the local level during Carlton's acute inflammatory response would be:
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics has presented many problems in our society, including an increased chance of fatality due to infections that could have otherwise been treated with success. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, but overexposure to these drugs give the bacteria more opportunities to mutate, forming resistant strains. Through natural selection, those few mutated bacteria are able to survive treatments of antibiotics and then pass on their genes to other bacterial cells through lateral gene transfer (Zhaxybayeva, 2011). Once resistance builds in one patient, it is possible for the strain to be transmitted to others through improper hygiene and failure to isolate patients in hospitals.
A low-grade fever, weight loss, lethargy, night sweats, respiratory congestion, cough, and hemoptysis, are symptoms indicative of Tuberculosis. A positive skin test, abnormal chest x-ray and a positive sputum culture are indicators of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is transmitted by inhalation of respiratory droplets containing bacteria. This excerpt depicts tuberculosis and its history and prevalence.
“Immune Response: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia.” National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Web. 18 Dec. 2011. .
Capriotti & Frizzell (2016) explain that sepsis is often seen in those who have a weak immune system. These individuals are at an increased risk of developing sepsis from microorganisms that a healthy immune system would normally fight off (Capriotti et al. 2016). The elderly, infants, and immunosuppressed patients are the most at risk for developing the condition (Capriotti et al. 2016). Sepsis can be caused by any microbe, but is most often caused by bacteria (Capriotti et al. 2016). Since sepsis has such a broad reach and can develop as a secondary infection after an initial injury or illness, Capriotti & Frizzell (2016) further explain the di...
Tuberculosis is an air-borne disease, hence, it can be passed from an infected person to a healthy individual through coughing, sneezing and other salivary secretions. Tuberculosis is caused by the transfer of Mycobacteriun Tuberculosis (M. Tuberculosis) also known as Tubercle Bacillus, a small particle of 1-5 microns in diameter, due to the small size, when an infected person sneezes or coughs, about 3,000 particles are expelled. M. Tuberculosis responsible for tuberculosis is able to stay in the air for a long period of time (about 6hoursAnother way of acquiring Tuberculosis is by drinking unpasteurized milk, milk straight from cow, although this is not a common mode of transmission, it can be found in rural areas. Ingestion of contaminated cow milk transmits Mycobacterium Bovis, the animal form which is still potent enough to cause tuberculosis in humans. ). Tuberculosis transmission is affected by exposure, socioeconomic status of person, proximity, immune status of uninfected individual (%&&%&? CDC).
Hepatitis B is a DNA viral infection that causes damage and inflammation to the liver. It was first discovered in 1965 by Dr. Baruch Blumberg. The HBV virus is very contagious and is even thought to be the most serious form of viral hepatitis and the most common viral infection on Earth. “HBV is 100 times more infectious than HIV.” (Green, 2002, pg. 7) The virus can survive for about one week outside the body on a dry surface. According to Green (2002, pg. 7), “One in twenty Americans has been infected with the virus at some point in their lives.” Between the ages of 15-39 is when 75% of new HBV infections occur, according to Green (2002, pg.8).
Chronic HBV is developed when HBV infection dose not result in immunization and is defined as existence of HbsAG in the body for more than six months [1]. Progression from acute HBV to chronic HBV is highly influenced by the age at infection and is a common state for those infected at...
When a familiar antigen is encountered, B-lymphocyte memory cells will divide and form new antibody-producing plasma cells. Some memory cells will be left, however, so that the body can respond to any number of future infections with the same pathogen. The second time the immune system encounters a pathogen for a second time, antibodies are produced more rapidly and their effect lasts longer. Memory B cells have an affinity for a particular antigen as well. Also, larger amounts of antibodies are produced in the secondary response resulting in a stronger response.
Tuberculosis is transmitted by inhalation of aerosols containing the tubercle bacilli. The required inoculum size for infection is usually high, but easily occurs with exposure to a patient who is currently infected. The products of dried aerosols, droplet nuclei, are particularly infectious because they remain in the air for an extended time, and upon inhalation easily move to the alveoli. The severe damage related to infection is caused by the reaction of the host. The tuberculosis infection has two phases, primary and secondary.
Restraining the virus is done in two ways, either by macrophages and phagocytes, or by killer T cells. Macrophages and phagocytes both contain the virus by engulfing and breaking them down with the help of enzymes and lysosomes (Delves). Killer T cells “recognize antigens from the pathogen” and kills the cell by inducing apoptosis, thus “preventing the spread of the infection to neighboring cells” (Mayer, Nyland). Killer T cells also immobilize infected cells by injecting a substance called perforin, which enters the wall of the infected cell and makes a hole, causing the cell to leak fluids and electrolytes and ultimately lead to their death (Menche, et al). Antibodies also play a vital role in the neutralizing viruses. Menche et, al. explains that antibodies can neutralize pathogens by “attach[ing] directly to the surface of a virus… and stop the pathogen from attaching itself to a normal body cell and infecting it”. After successfully obliterating the virus, the T helper cells activate a regulatory T cell by releasing hormones known as lymphokines. These hormones are responsible for regulating the immune system. After a virus is destroyed, regulatory t cells reduce the activity levels of B lymphocytes and other T cells by releasing their own set of lymphokines, called suppressor factors.
Active tuberculosis only develops in about 10% of infected persons, remaining dormant in the rest; although the latent infection may later progress to active disease years later, especially in immune-compromised individuals. 9 Infection by MTBC may involve any organ of the body, but clinical presentation is most common in the lungs (pulmonary TB). General symptoms include fever, loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue and severe cough with bloody sputum (hemoptysis) which may lead to death if untreated. 10 Mortality rates without treatment are high: in a study of natural history of TB in HIV-negative patients, 70% died within 10 years. 11 Tuberculosis remains a major health problem in the world...
Cells in the innate immune system include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, and dendtritic cells. Neutrophils quickly reach the site of infection to phagocytose and kill invading organisms. Eosinophils release granules to kill parasitic worms and are also involved in allergic reactions. Basophils and mast cells mediate allergic reactions by releasing granules containing substances that cause blood vessel dilation, airway constriction, and recruitment of more cells. Monocytes and macrophages phagocytose pathogens and foreign particles, kill pathogens and tumor cells, remove old red blood cells from circulation, secrete substances that activate other cells (cytokines), and activate the immune system. Dendritic cells are phagocytic and also effective at antigen
5.) Mylonakis, M.D., Eleftherios. PPD skin test. 10 June 2006 MedlinePlus. 26 July 2006 .