Purpose: to become familiar with the image analysis program and to develop an understanding to the size and age of planetary nebulae
Procedure
The first part of the experiment involved using a picture of a church and back round to understand different pixels, ADU, zoom, and how to get the (x,y) coordinates. We then took this brief understanding of pictures and applied it to the stars. We loaded a picture of nebulae m42. After this we needed to calculate the average number of stars or solar masses. We found the (x,y) coordinates of a position in the center of the nebulae and on the edge of the nebulae. We used the following distance formula to find the distance between the points.
After this calculation the answer in pixels needed to be converted to arc seconds for use in the small angle formula where 1 pixel approx. = 3 arc seconds. We now could use the small angle formula to find the actual radius in pc. Where d is the radius D is the distance from the Earth in pc and theta is the value we had just found out in arc seconds.
After the calculation we needed to convert pc to meters so we used the calculation factor of 1pc=3*10^16m
Now we needed to find the density. Density was figured out by multiplying the majority substance in the nebulae (hydrogen) per cubic m^3 by the mass of hydrogen in kg, which gave us the formula
We then had the info we needed to find the mass of the nebulae. We calculated this by using a spherical shape for ease of calculation. We used the following formula where m is the mass p is the density and r is the radius found above from the small angle formula (d).
Now that we had the amount of mass we needed to find the solar masses so we divided the mass of the nebulae by one solar mass unity in the following equation.
Our next part of this lab was to find the age of the nebulae m57 .
We used the same formula and procedure as before to find the radius of the star. The distance from Earth was given to us to complete the small angel formula. We then needed to convert from the au to km by the following equation.
We were told the expansion of the nebulae to be 20 km/s and assumed this had been going on since the birth of the nebulae for simplicity of calculation.
The second thing they debated about was how nebulae were distributed in the universe. Our galaxy is on a plane and there is lots of dust and other stuff on that plane. Curtis said all of that stuff was stopping us from seeing spiral nebulae on our own plane, but that there probably were nebulae that we could not see. Shapley assumed that spiral nebulae just didn't happen on the same plane as out galaxy. Curtis was right.
Hubble, Edwin. 1929, "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Volume 15, Issue 3, pp. 168-173
lifetime. Some of Edwin Hubble's greatest accomplishments were: Edwin Hubble proposed a classification system for nebulae, which are fuzzy little patches of light that are up in the sky. He discovered a variable star, called the Cepheid. It is located in the Andromeda Nebulae. Edwin Hubble settled decisively the question of the nature of the galaxies. Edwin Hubble's distribution of galaxies was determined to be homogeneous in distance. Edwin wanted to classify the galaxies according to their content, distance, shape, and pattern of brightness. By observing redshifts Edwin saw that galaxies were moving away from each other at a rate constant to the distance between them (this is known as Hubble's Law).
I would suggest contracting the use of incarceration in the United States. Mass incarceration only hurting our economy. The United States of America is already in debt and paying around twenty thousand dollars a year per prisoner can only put us in more debt. Not only are we literally paying the cost of punishment but we are also hurting the economy by not having a good reintegration to society
2, Alter Dinsmore, Cleminshaw H. Clarence, Philips G John. Pictorial Astronomy. United States: Sidney Feinberg, 1963.
The Orion Nebula contains one of the brightest star clusters in the night sky. With a magnitude of 4, this nebula is easily visible from the Northern Hemisphere during the winter months. It is surprising, therefore, that this region was not documented until 1610 by a French lawyer named Nicholas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc. On March 4, 1769, Charles Messier inducted the Orion Nebula, M42, into his list of stellar objects. Then, in 1771, Messier released his list of objects for its first publication in Memoires de l’Academie.1
Solar nebula is a rotating flattened disk of gas and dust in which the outer part of the disk became planets while the center bulge part became the sun. Its inner part is hot, which is heated by a young sun and due to the impact of the gas falling on the disk during its collapse. However, the outer part is cold and far below the freezing point of water. In the solar nebula, the process of condensation occurs after enough cooling of solar nebula and results in the formation into a disk. Condensation is a process of cooling the gas and its molecules stick together to form liquid or solid particles. Therefore, condensation is the change from gas to liquid. In this process, the gas must cool below a critical temperature. Accretion is the process in which the tiny condensed particles from the nebula begin to stick together to form bigger pieces. Solar nebular theory explains the formation of the solar system. In the solar nebula, tiny grains stuck together and created bigger grains that grew into clumps, possibly held together by electrical forces similar to those that make lint stick to your clothes. Subsequent collisions, if not too violent, allowed these smaller particles to grow into objects ranging in size from millimeters to kilometers. These larger objects are called planetesimals. As planetesimals moved within the disk and collide with one another, planets formed. Because astronomers have no direct way to observe how the Solar System formed, they rely heavily on computer simulations to study that remote time. Computer simulations try to solve Newton’s laws of motion for the complex mix of dust and gas that we believe made up the solar nebula. Merging of the planetesimals increased their mass and thus their gravitational attraction. That, in turn, helped them grow even more massive by drawing planetesimals into clumps or rings around the sun. The process of planets building undergoes consumption of most of the planetesimals. Some survived planetesimals form small moons, asteroids, and comets. The leftover Rocky planetesimals that remained between Jupiter and Mars were stirred by Jupiter’s gravitational force. Therefore, these Rocky planetesimals are unable to assemble into a planet. These planetesimals are known as asteroids. Formation of solar system is explained by solar nebular theory. A rotating flat disk with center bulge is the solar nebula. The outer part of the disk becomes planets and the center bulge becomes the sun.
Waller, William H. The Milky Way: An Insider's Guide. Princeton, N.J: Princeton UP, 2013. 42+. Print.
A star begins as nothing more than a very light distribution of interstellar gases and dust particles over a distance of a few dozen lightyears. Although there is extremely low pressure existing between stars, this distribution of gas exists instead of a true vacuum. If the density of gas becomes larger than .1 particles per cubic centimeter, the interstellar gas grows unstable. Any small deviation in density, and because it is impossible to have a perfectly even distribution in these clouds this is something that will naturally occur, and the area begins to contract. This happens because between about .1 and 1 particles per cubic centimeter, pressure gains an inverse relationship with density. This causes internal pressure to decrease with increasing density, which because of the higher external pressure, causes the density to continue to increase. This causes the gas in the interstellar medium to spontaneously collect into denser clouds. The denser clouds will contain molecular hydrogen (H2) and interstellar dust particles including carbon compounds, silicates, and small impure ice crystals. Also, within these clouds, there are 2 types of zones. There are H I zones, which contain neutral hydrogen and often have a temperature around 100 Kelvin (K), and there are H II zones, which contain ionized hydrogen and have a temperature around 10,000 K. The ionized hydrogen absorbs ultraviolet light from it’s environment and retransmits it as visible and infrared light. These clouds, visible to the human eye, have been named nebulae. The density in these nebulae is usually about 10 atoms per cubic centimeter. In brighter nebulae, there exists densities of up to several thousand atoms per cubic centimete...
If the nebula is dense enough, certain regions of it will begin to gravitationally collapse after being disturbed. As it collapses the particles begin to move more rapidly, which on a molecular level is actually heat, and photons are emitted that drive off the remaining dust and gas. Once the cloud has collapsed enough to cause the core temperature to reach ten-million degrees Celsius, nuclear fusion starts in its core and this ball of gas and dust is now a star. It begins its life as a main sequence star and little does it know its entire life has already been predetermined.
The first person to ever observe the Milky Way was Greek philosopher, Democritus, who said the galaxy may consist of distant stars. In 1610, Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and came to the conclusion that it was composed of billions and billions of faint stars. Then, in 1750, Thomas Wright c...
Limited omniscient point of view, is when the writer narrates the story in the third person and they share with the audience information about the characters thoughts and feelings that have happened in the past or what will happen in the future (Lukens, Smith, and Coffel 192 & Point of View PowerPoint Slide 5). The narrator of the third person omniscient point of view knows everything and will give the reader all of the important information that they need to know and the narrator refers to the characters in the story by their name or by “he,” “she,” or “they” (Point of View PowerPoint Slide 5). Third-person point of view: intrusive narrator “not not only reports all, but also comments on and evaluates characters’ actions and motives and may also express her/his own views about life (Abrams and Harpham 272 & Point of View PowerPoint Slide 6). We also have limited point of view, which according to the PowerPoint states Objective (dramatic) point of view is when the writer does not enter the minds of the characters and we can see the characters true identity through what they do and say throughout the story (Lukens, Smith, and Coffel 199). When reading a reader must figure out the meaning of the character’s
Nebulae are cosmic clouds of dust and gas floating in space. The word nebula is Latin and means cloud. Originally the word nebula referred to any extended astronomical object, not including comets, planets, or satellites. But over time the word nebula became reduced to mean interstellar cloud of dust and gas. Calling it that does not do a nebula justice. Most nebulae are commonly made up of hydrogen and helium gasses, dust, and plasma. Nebulae are the building blocks of our universe; they contain all the things stars need to form. Scientists classify nebulae in to one of two major categories; bright and dark. From there they narrow it down more to planetary nebulae, emission nebulae, reflection nebulae, dark nebulae, and supernova remnants. Bright nebulae are close enough to stars to glow, and dark nebulae are to far away from stars to do so. Dark nebulae are only visible if a star cluster or other bright object provides a backdrop. Sometimes they are part of a bright nebula. A good example of this phenomenon would be the Trifid Nebula. It is a bright nebula divided into three sections by dark “alleys” spanning across it. Getting down into the smaller categories, planetary nebulae form when a star cannot support itself by fusion reactions in its center. Gravity forces the outer layers of the sun in on its core, making the insides heat up and condense. The heat from the center blows the outsides away in a stellar wind over a few thousand years. When the star finishes the only thing left of it is the core. The core then heats the distant gasses and they glow because of this. Despite planetary nebula being called planetary nebula, planets have nothing to do with them. They are a very common nebula in our galaxy, as there are an es...
In 1912, Vesto Slipher calculated the speed and distance by measuring the rate of wavelengths of light. He noticed that some were moving away. In 1924, Hubble discovered that the galaxies were outside the Milky Way, he noticed a special type of variable star that has constant relati...
The idea behind the Solar Nebular Hypothesis is that the solar system was condensed from an enormous cloud of hydrogen, helium, and a few other elements and rocks. Around five billion years this cloud of materials began to spin and contract together into a disk shape under their own gravitational forces. The particles started combined together, protoplanets, to eventually form planets. A great mass of the material eventually began to form together, protosun, and make up the sun.