The disruption of the Mongol invasion and rule was a defining point in Islamic civilization that ultimately led to the establishment of non-Arab, dynastic Islamic empires in the Middle East. Popular perceptions of Mongol rule as calamitous are reinforced by historians like Browne, who describes the Mongol period as having done ‘more to compass the ruin of Islamic civilization…than any other’. Ibn Battuta documents that even one hundred years later, two of ‘the great cities of Khurasan’ lay in ruins. Certainly, the initial Mongol conquest was devastating, but the idea that it ended Islamic ruined Islamic civilization does not hold up to examination. Although Iraq suffered some long-term devastation, rather than destroying Islamic civilization, Mongol rule shifted the centers of power to Anatolia, Persia, and Egypt in which Islamic civilization and culture thrived. It was in this context and with the crucial aid of the pax mongolica that significant developments in Islamic art and a reemergence of Persian culture took place. In a similar vein, the Mongol yasa left a legacy in the post-Mongol Islamic dynasties which were compelled to legitimize themselves by balancing the universalist claims of sharia and the Mongol yasa. Ultimately, this was their most consequential legacy and one which contributed to the enduring post-Mongol empires. Thus, Mongol rule did not destroy Islamic civilization but rather led to a shift from an Arab-centric system of culture and governance to a broader Islamic polity. Browne’s claims of ruin are semi-accurate in …show more content…
regards to Iraq, where Baghdad, the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate, was destroyed in 1258AD and the country became a no-man’s land. Following the invasion, the immediate consequences were the breakdown of civil government and the ending of the caliphate; long-term, the destruction of the qanat irrigation system led to a local collapse of agriculture. However, the extent to which this collapse is attributable to the Mongols is debatable. Realistically, the Abbasid caliphate and Iraq had long been in decline as a result of decades of war between competing factions, and Iraq was a ‘significant exception’ to the overall regional recovery and development. This revival took place in the context of the geopolitical developments of the division of the Middle East between the Ottomans, Persians, and Mamluks. The distinguishing feature of these new empires is their longevity and bureaucratic resilience as compared to their Arab predecessors. Lewis attributes these traits to the steppe principle of dynastic succession as opposed to Islamic ideas of election. While dynastic law will be elaborated upon later, it is clear that the post-Mongol order was one of relative stability in which Islamic civilization thrived. For instance, the Ottomans survived into the 20th century. Although the Mongols significantly changed the frontiers of the Middle East, rather than destroying Islamic civilization, their administrative influence led to new, lasting Islamic polities in which culture flourished. A case study of Persian miniatures clearly demonstrates the new era of cultural exchange between East Asia and Islamic civilization ushered in by the pax Mongolica. Persian miniatures from the 14th century contain significant Chinese motifs such as dragons, phoenix, and other mythologycal creatures. For instance, a leaf in a Shahnameh from c.1330 titled ‘Bahram Gur Slays the Dragon’ noticeably uses a Chinese style dragon. Azhar’s ‘The Eavesdropper’ and Habiballah of Sava’s ‘Concourse of the Birds’ are examples of the influence of Yuan ink style on Perso-Islamic art into the Timurid and Safavid periods. These paintings stand in contrast to earlier Seljuk influenced paintings which used more subdued colors against neutral backgrounds. The new Persian school also had a profound impact on the Ottomans, who created a ‘Persian Academy of Painting’, which continued to expand the eastern-influenced style of Persian art. The works of Ottoman artists such as Nakkaş Osman and Lütfi Abdullah are excellent examples of Ottoman continuity with the new romantic Persian style. In addition to art, the Ilkhanate brought a resurgence in Persian language and culture within Islam. The Mongols were assimilated into Persian culture and eagerly participated in it, creating a new era of Perso-Islamic culture. This resurgence is exemplified in the works of Jalal al-Din Rumi, the Persian poet who significantly wrote his religious poem, the Mathnawi, in Persian and not in Arabic. During the Mongol period, there was also a noticeable increase in interest in the Shahnameh, which specifically recounts the pre-Islamic history of Persia, and was used to legitimize and praise Persian culture. Juwayni, the early Mongol historian created a specifically Mongol Shahnameh, and his history draws on images of Persian culture and mythology. For the Timurids, the Shanahmeh was essential to securing dynastic legitimacy and authority ‘within the context of the Islamic Iranian monarchical tradition.’ The Mongol revival of Persian culture differed from previous revivals because Persia was finally severed from Baghdad and the Arab lands. Consequently, Eastern Islamic civilization took on a distinctly Persian character. In contrast to eschatological language often used to describe the Mongols, the pax mongolica generated new, long-lasting styles of art and culture in Islamic civilization. At the source of post-Mongol stability was the Mongol influence on Islamic law. The eclectic Ilkhanate saw a fusion of legal codes, and following Ghazan’s conversion to Islam in 1295 the Mongol yasa was observed alongside the Islamic shari’a. The yasa was dynastic law, the legal articulation of statements made by the Great Khans, which emphasized the authority of the sovereign, thus standing in contrast to the shari’a. The lasting impact of the yasa on Islamic civilization is seen through the Mongol’s successor states. In the Timurid Empire, Timur tied his legitimacy to the Mongols through the yasa, and the Timurids remained devoted to it. The Muʿizz al-ansāb not only attempts to confirm the Timurids as heirs to the Khanate, but also contains references to high judicial offices responsible for maintaining the yasa. Furthermore, the yasa was crucial to what Kusha describes as the ‘process of Turkization’ in the Middle East: essentially, the amalgamation of political systems in the Ottoman dynasty, of which the yasa served as a mediator between the Persian theory of kingship and the Islamic shari’a. For example, in correspondence between Mehmet I and Shahrukh, preserved in the Münşeatü’l-Selatin, Shahrukh reprimands Mehmet over Ottoman succession customs, stating that it is ‘not in accordance with the Mongol traditions.’ Although there is question as to whether the interaction actually happened, the reference signifies the importance of Mongol dynastic law in Ottoman legal discourse. Furthermore, Ottoman law echoed the yasa in that the imperial legal corpus and tradition drew legitimacy from the sovereign and the ruling dynasty which led to a radical change in the relationship between the sovereign and Islamic jurists, and stood in contrast to pre-Mongol tradition. We also see echoes of the yasa in the Mughal Empire, where even in the 16th century, Babur states that ‘Precisely as Chingiz Khan laid down his rules, so [we]…observe them.’ Closely intertwined with this legal legacy is the development of what Burak calls the ‘state madhhab’, which materialized as a result of the association different dynasties had with their Mongol heritage and particularly with the post-Mongol idea of dynastic law. The Ottoman promotion of the Hanafi school and appointment of muftis is an example of the state madhhab. In contrast to the classical understanding of the muftiship, the Ottomans expanded state madrasas and appointed muftis to major cities with the duty of issuing fatwas when needed by the authorities. There are earlier examples of a caliph favoring certain schools over others, such as al-Ma’mun’s support for Mutazilism and the Mihna in the 9th century. However, the difference between these earlier examples and the post-Mongol experience is that the post-Mongol developments were inextricably linked to Mongol ideas of dynastic law. The post-Mongol dynasties were compelled to balance the yasa’s universalist notions of sovereign power with the Islamic recognition of the ulama’s authority which consequently resulted in a complex bureaucracy and the post-Mongol practice in which dynasties endeavored to establish their legitimacy on the basis of guiding ancestral principles and rules. In short, the adoption of an official school of law was a response that dynasts and their jurists developed to cope with the divergence between the Mongol and pre-Mongol Islamic ideas of law. While the failure of the mihna demonstrated the power of the ulama over the sovereign, the legacy of the yasa and the sovereign’s authority over religious jurists to the 20th century showed the supremacy of dynastic law in the Ottoman Empire. Through these examples, it would appear that the legal codes of the post-Mongol Islamic dynasties can not be separated from their Mongol past.
That is not to say that these dynasties did not imbue their own customs and traditions into their legal corpuses, but the distinction between pre and post-Mongol law in Islamic civilization is grounded in the Mongol understanding and promotion of dynastic law and
sovereignty. With the coming of the Mongols, a new era of culture and empire began. Assuredly, the Mongol conquest was initially devastating, but the end of the Abbasid caliphate would not have been a shock. The Mongol invasion led to a reordering of Middle Eastern frontiers, and freed the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals to carve out their empires. The pax mongolica allowed for the unhindered diffusion of artistic and cultural works across Asia. Furthermore, the severing of Persia from its former Arab rulers resulted in a cultural renaissance, exemplified through the Ilkhanid and Timurid patronage of the Shahnameh. Yet the most significant long-term impact the Mongols had on Islamic civilization was their legacy of dynastic stability and sovereign authority. To reiterate Lewis’s argument on the effect of the Mongols in the Islamic world, the Mongols left ‘a workable principle of dynastic succession.’ Through the study of the Ottomans, it has been demonstrated that the post-Mongol states were stronger, more cohesive, and secure than the loosely organized caliphates. Through this examination, it would appear that the Mongols did not destroy Islamic civilization but rather made a lasting
Ansary, Mir Tamim. Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World through Islamic Eyes. New York: PublicAffairs, 2009. Print.
Firstly, the Mongol society was viewed as merciful and fair-minded. According to Ala-ad-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini, a Persian historian who served the Mongols as the governor of Baghdad in the 1200’s, the Mongols would not use excessive punishments when collecting taxes from their tributaries. Likewise, Korean scholars who documented the battle of Kuju between the Mongols and the Koreans in the 15th century reported that after the battle an elderly Mongol general recognized the Korean military leaders for their persistence and courage in their refusal to surrender. The general said he believed that these leaders would become distinguished rulers of the state, and in fact it came to pass. Another instance ...
Rossabi, Morris. "Life in China Under Mongol Rule: Religion." The Mongols in World History | Asia
Mongol empire was the largest land empire of the world has ever seen. First began as a nomadic group of tribes. Mongols were united and emerged into an empire that conquered lands stretching from Europe to Central Asia under the rule of Genghis Khan. The Mongol empire was able to succeed in expanding, and conquering was due to their ability to adapt to any living conditions, their sheer brutality force, and their strong military organization.
Finally, one more good thing that came out of Mongol rule was that Genghis Khan rule was that he accepted all religions. He knew that he could never unite a country under one religion or the people would rebel so he saw it best to let them do their own religions. Sometimes thanks to the trading routes religions intermingled. Also thanks to these trading routes different religions reached different places.
Throughout ancient years, there have been many empires that have impacted culture, politics, religion, and people. The Mongol empire and the Roman empire both had their ways of growing their empires, administering their empires, having successes and failures, and legacies. As the empires began to take shape, expand, and become more complex, they will important in the lives of people.
The Mongols; a vicious and destructive military force, feared throughout its empire and under the rule of one man, Chinggis Khan. This picture of the Mongols and their empire is one often painted by our modern society. However, much of what we think we know about the Mongols has been exaggerated and biased from the point of view of the people that were conquered. In reality, the Mongols, although at times violent and destructive, bore many similarities in tactics and practices to the classical empires that had preceded them. They were not just simple barbaric savages looking to destroy whatever they could. They were a people united for a common purpose, trying to achieve it the same way that prior civilizations had done so: military force. Even though a Western perspective may find the actions of the Mongols objectionable, it must be understood that this was not a Western society, nor did it house the same values as one. The Mongols were not the destructive barbarians they are often made out to be, but rather an effective military force working for unification.
The military exploits of the Mongols under Ghengis Khan as well as other leaders and the ruthless brutality that characterized the Mongol conquests have survived in legend. The impact of the invasions can be traced through history from the different policies set forth to the contributions the Mongols gave the world. The idea of the ruthless barbarian’s intent upon world domination will always be a way to signify the Mongols. Living steadfast upon the barren steppe they rode out of Mongolia to pursue a better life for their people.
The impact of the Mongol conquest of both the Islamic heartlands and Russia was extensive and long lasting. After the Mongol conquests into the regional cities of Russia, they established a long run for two and a half centuries. Russians had to pay tribute and turn over all their goods to the Mongol overlords. These peasants essentially became serfs as they were giving their goods for protection in turn. On the other hand, Moscow prospered despite being destroyed during the conquests. With its rebuilding, it became the tribute center for the Mongol lords, and the center for the Orthodox Church. To continue, the Mongols helped organize the Russian military and partially helped establish a political precedent of a centralized authority with little limitations to the assigned power. In the Islamic heartlands, the Mongol conquest killed the caliph and destroyed Baghdad, leaving the Muslims without a follower and capital center. In a sense, this second conquest was much harsher than the one of Russia with its violence and religious impact.
There are few events that have affected world history as profoundly as the battles and expeditions between 632 and 720, and everyone lives with those consequences to the present day. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the death of Islam was very possible. The Arab conquests were remembered merely as one of the history’s more improbable “might-have-beens”. It may easily have been the end, if not for the decisive action taken by the early Muslim leadership, notably by the first two caliphs (or successors of the Prophet). Like Muhammad himself, they were from urban commercial backgrounds, but they saw clearly that the Muslim community had to expand or break up.
Over the years there have been many great nomadic groups, such as the Vikings and the Kievan, but no nomadic group has been more successful than the Mongols. The Mongols have had many lasting influences on Russia, China, and even Europe. The Mongols have left a mark on the European trading systems in technologies as well as in their trading systems trade routes. One thing that stayed the same throughout Europe was their many religion.
The Mongol Empire was the largest land-based empire in world history during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries C.E. The Mongols protected prominent trade routes in Eurasia such as the Silk Road. This allowed for an increase in interregional trade and brought about the spread of new cultures, ideas, and technologies to Eastern Europe and other regions of the world. Due to this diffusion of technology, at the beginning of the fifteenth century a German inventor by the name of Johannes Gutenberg invented what we know now as the printing press in the Holy Roman Empire. This allowed for the mass-producing of books and papers and helped fuel the new Scientific Revolution’s idea of doubting religions and other previous ideas, accepting only
The Mongol and the Mali Empires differ in their rise with the use of certain methods towards conquering. Geographic locations play an enormous role in the rise of both these magnificent empires. In the Mali empire, Islam was prevalent unlike the Mongol Empire where everyone was allowed to practice their own religion. Another difference would be the methods by which they arose. Although warfare existed within the Mali empire, Mali arose by peaceful methods. However, the Mongol empire attacked states which were already established. If people ...
Located in the province of Xianjing, the Uyghurs are isolated by massive mountains, deserts, Communist China, and extreme poverty. The Uyghurs are of Turkic origin, and were one of the 9 original tribes. One of these tribes, the Ottomans, sacked Constantinople in 1459, starting the rein of the Sultans for 400 years. The superpower carved a massive empire, from its roots in Turkey, to spread from the Russian steppes to the Alps to India, and stamping their name on history in blood. European history in the 1400‘s, 1500‘s, and 1600‘s centered on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire and the Arabic people carved two massive empires in an extremely short time. They crushed the medieval christian kingdoms around Jerusalem, and quickly started attacking Christian kingdoms in Spain, Greece, and the Balkans. These conflicts between Muslims and Christians have been the longest and bloodiest in the history of the world, and still persist today. These Ottomans are, understandably, the most wel...
The structure of pre-British Sharia during the Mughal reign was characterized by a relationship of relative distance between the state government and legal proceedings in the courtroom. (Giunchi 2010, 1121) Though, quadis (judges) were appointed and dismissed by the emperor, they often based their decisions on non-binding opinions; fatwas, of learned Muftis, who sanctioned a particular course of action in reference to textual evidence from the sources of law. Though fatwas were requested in response to real social situations, the muftis used a hypothetical template to document their decisions, not bearing any details about the identity of the plaintiff and thus allowing for the document to serve as a reference for later occasions. (Hallaq 1994, 32-33) Fatwas did not bear a...