Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Climate change is currently generally regarded as a major global issue that is especially acute in developing countries. This study focuses on the impacts of climate change and variability on smallholder farmers, their vulnerability and coping strategies on a micro-scale in a developing country.
In order to get a comprehensive picture of these issues, this chapter reviews literature on climate change and vulnerability. It begins by defining climate change and analyzing global climate change in general and its impacts on local smallholder farmer’s livelihoods in a developing country such as Zimbabwe. Lastly the chapter also assesses the measures of adaptation which smallholder farmers can use to increase their coping capacity and resilience to climate change and variability.
2.2 Definition of climate related phenomena
2.2.1 Climate change
Climate change refers to shifts in the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period of decades or longer (Ziervogel and Zermoglio, 2009). It is the change in average atmospheric behavior, and change in the patterns of variation around this behavior (Rumbach and Kudva, 2011). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) declared that climate change is unequivocal as evidenced by observed changes in several global and regional climatic indicators (IPCC, 2007). At the country level, climate change refers to observable changes and permutations (undefined geographic variations) of temperature, rainfall and extreme climate events and their single or collective impacts on various agricultural production (Lasco, et al., 2009).
Climate change is largely attributed to anthropogenic factors which have caused some mo...
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... and feed grains (Nyong, 2008). Higher temperatures can the physiological development of crops such as causing increased respirations, shorter periods of seed formation and reduced biomass production which all result in hastened maturation and reduced crop yields (Adejuwon, 2004). Global warming and drought have affected the change in the incidence and distribution of pests and pathogens which presents challenges for crop management and animal rearing. Moisture and temperature are important elements of climate which determine the occurrence and localization of pests and diseases (Adejuwon, 2004). This is because pests and diseases vectors thrive well in optimum conditions of high temperature and abundant water supply. In this way climate change and global warming has extended the range of distribution of some pests and diseases worsening the plight of farmers.
Earth’s average temperature has increased about 0.8 degrees Celsius since 1880 and another degree could cause even more problems than there already are. Climate change is an important issue to be aware of because it is real and it affects you and the things around you each and every day. Every day animals lose habitats and die because climate change caused there home to burn, or their food sources started to deplete, etc. Along with these, more and more CO2 is being released into the air due to wildfires burning which is causing the atmosphere to heat even more. With the temperature increasing the oceans will become warmer and evaporation and rainfall patterns will change which will affect humans and animals, because we all work together in a system. There are many consequences of climate change like human health issues, and more animals becoming endangered, but the most important consequence is the rising amounts of wildfires.
According to the article “Food” from the Union of Concerned Scientist, “shifting seasonal rainfall patterns and more severe precipitation events—and related flooding—may delay planting and harvesting” (“Food”). Much of agriculture depends on consistent patterns of sunlight and rainfall. However due to global warming, inconsistent patterns of rain from periods of droughts to flooding can occur. This will make it extremely difficult to grow plants. If farmers cannot grow plants, there will be a shortage in fruits and vegetables available. This will also affect the wallet, because due to shortage of plants growing, prices will be raised so farmers and grocery stores can still make a profit. Inconsistent rain patterns will greatly affect local
In order to assess climate change from a security standpoint it is necessary to consider its potential future implications as well as their magnitude for different states and groups. It is clear that everybody will bear the effects of climate change, although the effects will be uneven and disproportionately distributed. States with less adaptive capacity, which can be determined by levels of “human health and food security, self-reliance, governmental capacity and poverty/development” , intensifies their vulnerability to the effects of climate change. The manifestations of climate change in the future ma...
In the next 40 years the world’s population is predicted to rise to 9 billion, that amount of people living on this planet would put a lot of strain on the agricultural sector, there would be more demand for food and water. According to (Ryan, 2010) Agricultural land loss is a growing problem in most countries and across the globe as our world population increases. One of the major problem affecting the global food supply is global warming. Most people do not know what global warming is and the effect it’s having on our planet. Global warming is the increase in the average temperatures on our planet. It is believed that natural events and human activities are a source of contribution to the increase in global warming and climate change. This is having a lot of impact on food production. As the layer gets compromised by pollutants known to destroy the ozone layer, plants we grow for food may not yield the quantity and quantity. Since global temperatures are increasing and ocean levels are rising, this is already causing drought and floods, just recently we experienced the California drought which, had a major impact on food production in the USA. Also, the more frequent United Kingdom floods have been linked to global warming. Lastly, global warming affects food production ...
Climate change is a long-term change in regional or global climate patterns. From the mid twentieth century to now, there has mostly been a significant increase in average global temperatures. Climate change is a major issue in the world today, and a lot of people feel very differently about the cause of it. The common argument is whether climate change is a natural occurrence or if the recent increase in temperatures is because of humans. Climate change is a natural cycle in the Earth’s weather.
Climate change is evidenced through shifts in the weather patterns such as winds, humidity and temperatures over certain durations. Natural climate changes occur less frequently and they are triggered by factors related geographical aspects as well as solar radiation. The earth’s movement on the orbit triggers changes in climate causing some areas to have higher temperatures than usual while others are significantly cold depending on the position of the earth on the orbit. The heat form the sun causes changes on the stratospheric ozone and it increases the amount of greenhouse gases. Heat from the oceanic crust also contributes to warming as a result of episodic hydrothermal venting (Liao & Sandeberg, 2012). Volcanic activity also causes a release of certain elements that may block the sun and also contribute to increase greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Climate change is one of the major issues surfacing on Earth over the past century. The earth’s temperature has increased over the years, leading to detrimental effects on the economic and life sources of people, especially that of agricultural production and livestock. The Merriam-Webster online dictionary (2014), defined climate change as a change in global climate patterns apparent from the mid late 20th century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, (2007) predicts that by 2100 the increase in global average surface temperature may be between 1.8° C and 4.0° C. With increases of 1.5° C to 2.5° C, approximately 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species are expected to be at risk of extinction. Moreover, the IPCC (2007) purported that climate change has severe consequences for food security in developing countries.
-How could global warming affect the area and food production? Are there any innovations in the area to help deal with climate change and the increasing scarcity of resources? (such as covered irrigation channels, wind power, reducing carbon footprint…?)
Climate Change is any substantial change in climate that lasts for an extended period of time. One contributor to current climate change is global warming, which is an increase in Earth’s average temperature. Plants and animal species throughout the world are being affected by rising temperatures. Many plants are flowering earlier now than they once did; animals, such as the yellowbellied marmot, are emerging from hibernation earlier; and many bird and butterfly species are migrating north and breeding earlier in the spring than they did a few decades ago, all because of slight changes in temperature cues. (Shuster)
According to the Canada’s Action on Climate Change, Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in temperature, precipitation, winds, and other indicators. Climate change can involve both changes in average conditions and changes in variability, including, for example, extreme events. Climate change is one of the biggest crisis in the earth. It will cause a huge damage to the eco-system and human. We are the victims of the climate change. However, we are the one who cause the climate change.
The earth is a complex system, which continues to evolve and change. Climate change and global warming are currently popular in the political agenda. But what does “climate” really mean? The difference between weather and climate can be conveyed in a single sentence: “Climate is what you expect; weather is what you get.” Based on research of the geologic record, we know that climate change has happened throughout Earth's history and at present, ever-increasing evidence points to the roles that humans play in altering Earth systems. The Earth and its atmosphere receive heat energy from the sun; the atmospheric heat budget of the Earth depends on the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing radiation from the planet; which has been constant over the last few thousand years. However present evidence seems to suggest that the recent increase in temperature has been brought about by pollution of the atmosphere, in particular the release of huge amounts of carbon dioxide, mostly through Anthropogenic Forcing (human activity) and other various internal and external factors. I...
It is undisputable that climate variability and change are global phenomena, which have become a big challenge to humankind and how they relate to their immediate environment (IPCC, 2013). Climate change is the change in average weather conditions over a long period of time, whereas climate variability is the annual climate fluctuations above or below a long term average value. Though climate change is a relatively new phenomenon exacerbated by human influence, which threatens the livelihoods, different species survival and ecosystem services (Ceballos et al., 2015). However, climate variability has always affected households in the past. Admittedly, as the impacts of climate change are becoming more pronounced, they may have adverse environmental
all the time. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps the earth at temperatures that
Global warming is one of the most serious issues that the human species face today, yet the majority of the population does not pay attention to it. People are not aware of the dangers and do not care about it much because the main effects will affect the next generation and not themselves. Global warming is happening and it is the reason for changing weather and weather extremes such as earthquakes, floods and wildfires. Global warming is caused by societies lifestyle and these lifestyles destroy the environment and affect the whole world. The use of cars, trains, planes, as well as wasting energy for people’s entertainment has a price; this price is that society is in danger.
Floods are perhaps the most serious environmental threat to the fight against hunger, malnutrition, disease and poverty in the study area, essentially because of its impact on agricultural productivity. The study confirms that young adults still take up farming as their major occupation in the rural areas. It showed that the major staple crops of these farmers were cassava, yam and maize; while the most important animals reared were poultry and goats. However mixed farming was the most popular farming system in the region. Important adaptation options being used by farmers include diversifying from farm to non–farm activities, out migration from flood risk zones, adapting through relief materials from government and NGOs, income diversification and construction of embankment and gutters. However, 5% of the farmers did not engage in any form of adaptation strategies. Those who did not use any of the methods considered, described lack of information on appropriate adaptation methods, financial constraints, shortage of labor, poor access to market, lack of access to weather forecast technologies as major constraints to adaptation.