CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction of photogrammetry
Photogrammetry has been defined by the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through process of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena. Even though photogrammetry has expanded to include analysis of the other records, photographs are still the principal source of information.
On the other hand, the definition of photogrammetric are included with two distinct areas. This is the following distinct areas:
Metric photogrametry This is consists of making
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Moreover, many of the maps that use nowadays are created with photogrammetry and photographs that taken from aircraft.
2.1.1 History of photogrammetry
Developments are leads to the nowadays to science of photogrammetry occurred long before the invention of photograph. As early as 350 B.C Aristotle had referred to the process of projecting images in optically. Then, in the early 18th century Dr. Brook Taylor had published his treatise on linear perspective. Afterward, J. H. Lambert had suggested that the principle of perspective could be used in preparing maps.
A practical photographic process was developed. This is happen in 1839, Louis Daguerre of Paris has been announced his direct photographic process. In this process, he has been identified the exposure was made on metal plates that had been light-sensitized with a coating of silver iodine.
After a year from Daguerre’s invention happen, Francois Arago is a geodist with the French Academy of Science, had been demonstrated the use of photographs in topographic surveying. This is can be seen in his experiment of researches, kites and balloons were used in photogrammetry for taking aerial photographs. With that, he has been thinking due to difficulties to encounter in obtaining the aerial photographs. So that, he has curtailed area of research and concentrated on mapping with terrestrial
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The whole image is divided into pixels, which is size and shape is depends on the size and shape of capacitors.
Sampling determines the geometric properties of an image.
b) Quantizing
i. Assigning the intensity value to a pixel and defines radiometric properties of the image (Schenk, 1999)
From the point of view of the application, the digital image is presented as a matrix I that are consist of r = 1, and so on, R is rows and j = 1, and so on, C is columns. For that, the elements of the matrix that are carry intensity values. By that, depending on the type of image will make the matrix consists only have of one layer (a grey tone image) or several layers (coloured, multispectral, and hyperspectral images). A colour table is an alternative form of an image decription.
Figure 2.1 This figure is shows the sampling data of image aerial photograph. (Norbert Haala, 2009)
2.2.1 Orientation and georeferencing
The determination of object coordinates of points measured in the images is a basic task of photogrammetry. The geometric relation between an image and object coordinate system that known as central projection. This is analytically that described by collinearity
variety of means such as ship surveys, and remote sensing will lead to a better
For many years the only way to capture an image required one to paint or draw the model or object. This was until 1814 when Joseph Nicephore Niepce a French inventor, took the first picture in history. Even though the picture was a permanent print the image known as “View from the window at Le Guas” took eight hours to expose!
Ken Jennings was a map nerd from a young age himself, you will not be surprised to learn, even sleeping with an old creased atlas at the side of his pillow, most kids his age were cuddling with a trusted blanket- Jennings was not. As he travels the world meeting people of kindred spirits--map librarians, publishers, geocachers, and the engineers behind google maps. Now that technology and geographic unknowing is increasingly insulting us from the space and land around us, we are going to be needing these people more than ever. Mapheads are the ones who always know exactly where they are and...
Prior to the invention of the daguerreotype, the Camera Obscura was the main optical instrument that was used to project images onto paper. The Camera Obscura was a device in the shape of a box that allowed light, which was being reflected from the images that the user was intending to capture, to enter through an opening at one end of the box to form an image on a surface and an artist would then trace the image to form the most accurate impression of an image at that peri...
The vast influence of observation was highly apparent in paintings during the Scientific Revolution particularly for artists like Jan Vermeer (Fiero, 120-121). According to, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, “Vermeer was intensely preoccupied with the behavior of light and other optical effects such as sudden recessions and changes of focus (Liedtke).” In Vermeer’s painting The Geographer, I think he pays attention very well to the light in this particular painting. It is obvious the source of the light is coming from the window next to the man in the painting. He captured the way light hits various objects in the room and the shadows they create in a very realistic manner. It is also, apparent Vermeer’s precise technical abilities and careful observation to everyday human activity that support in the realism of this particular painting. I like how he captures this individual briefly taking a moment away from his work to possibly double check something as someone would do to check their own accuracy. Jan Vermeer captured everyday life in his impressive realism paintings, which showed people a different world that existed around them. Similar to, the art influencing different viewpoints of the world was new literature of Enlightenment
...regarded GPS – an indispensable part of GIS. Discussions on cartographic principles, commercial GIS software programs, satellite images, aerial photos, and geodatabases are some of the other conspicuous omissions in this book. There is an inconsistency in the depth of topics explored; for example map projections are explored in great depth, while vector topology is merely glossed over. These omissions and inconsistencies would in my opinion make this book marginally less beneficial to all the three audiences together. However, there is something for all them; structure for engineers, equations for engineers and students, and GIS concepts for students, engineers and users. This book will therefore be undeniably valuable if used to complement the material in some of the other fundamental GIS books in the discipline. It has merits, but there is room for improvement.
A. Line – An irregular soft line is used to establish the eye level/horizon in background between the sky and the field. The diagonal lines define the field and are in an opposite direction of the diagonal lines that define the trunk off the tree in the middle of the picture. The diagonal lines in the field, the horizon line, and the edge of the painting create a linear perspective.
In the early 1400s, Italian engineer and architect, Filippo Brunelleschi, rediscovered the system of perspective as a mathematical technique to replicate depth and form within a picture plane. According to the principles, establishing one or more vanishing points can enable an artist to draw the parallels of an object to recede and converge, thus disappearing into a “distance”. In 1412, Brunelleschi demonstrated this technique to the public when he used a picture of the Florence Baptistery painted on a panel with a small hole in the centre.3 In his other hand, he held a mirror to reflect the painting itself, in which the reflected view seen through the hole depicted the correct perspective of the baptistery. It was confirmed that the image
The rise of photography began in the early 1830’s in France, and wasn’t very popular as most artists preferred a paintbrush and canvas to a new contraption that wasn’t popular and wasn’t manufactured locally or globally yet and that was fairly expensive to try to produce, and since this time it has been debated if photography deserves its place in the art world. Through the late 1800’s and the early 1900’s it grew in popularity and throughout time photography went from being badly received to a new form of art though people around the world still debate if it is indeed “art”. Photography has a long history from the first camera obscura in the 18th century to the latest Nikon or Canon camera in the 21st century.
Historical geographer JB Harley wrote an essay on Map Deconstruction in 1989, in which Harley argues that a map is more than just a geographical representation of an area, his theory is that we need to look at a map not just as a geographical image but in its entire context. Harley points out that by an examination of the social structures that have influenced map making, that we may gain more knowledge about the world. The maps social construction is made from debate about what it should show. Harley broke away from the traditional argument about maps and examined the biases that govern the map and the map makers, by looking at what the maps included or excluded. Harley’s “basic argument within this essay is that we should encourage an epistemological shift in the way we interpret the nature of cartography.” Therefore Harley’s aim within his essay on ‘Deconstructing the Map’ was to break down the assumed ideas of a map being a purely scientific creation.
The Hereford World Map is the world’s oldest surviving map of the world; it was made in 1300, during the beginning of the Renaissance in Europe. There was a wider range of influences on mapping during the later medieval period. With an increase in exploration, Europe began to evolve into an international continent; widespread travel can be seen by the influences of the Islamic world on architecture. While map making in China had flourished in the 11th C, mapping was beginning to evolve in Europe. By around 1400 there was a peak in map making in Europe. There is evidence of the influence of Roman mapping on medieval maps in Europe. The Medieval world maps but together information from Roman sources to make the world maps in the middle ages known as the mappa mundi, meaning cloth of the world. These were cloth maps, and the name mappa mundi was widely used for them. These world maps were understood by historians as an attempt to show where countries were located, quite often they were not just geographical representations but they were also stories of the world. As knowledge of map making increased during the Renaissance, was a move for wider representations of information on maps. The map became a source of information on the animals and history of the different countries. This can be seen in The Hereford World Map, a map that gives a geometrical representation of the locations of the known countries of the world and also acted as an encyclopaedia of information on various types of animals and where in the world they came from.
Statistic images and landscapes, or know as fractal landscapes, and the way that this component works is that these statistic images...
When going for a walk, a person takes in the beauty around them. On this particular day, the refulgent sun is extra bright, making the sky a perfect blue. White, puffy clouds fill the sky, slowing moving at their own pace. The wind is peacefully calm, making the trees stand tall and proud. There is no humidity in the air. As this person walks down the road, they see a deer with her two fawns. The moment is absolutely beautiful. Moments like this happen only once in a great while, making us wanting to stay in the particular moment forever. Unfortunately, time moves on, but only if there were some way to capture the day’s magnificence. Thanks to Joseph Niépce, we can now capture these moments and others that take our breath away. The invention of the camera and its many makeovers has changed the art of photography.
Now a days many people have become enthusiastic with photography. Most people think that photography is easy, that they just have to make a frame and press the shutter button. The reality is that there is a lot more to photography than pressing a simple button. One difference, as a photographer, is to deal with the technicalities of producing a canvas. Lighting, positioning and lenses are some of the major factors that can alter a photograph. Good photography, just like any art creates a mood which makes it's audience feel one way or another. If a canvas doesn’t generate any moods or feelings,
The era of radio telescopes along with radio astronomy begun with Karl Guthe Jansky's discovery of an astronomical radio source in 1931. In the 20th century, many types of telescopes were developed for a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. (infrared telescopes--700 nm/ 0.7 µm - 1000 µm/1 mm, ultra-violet teles...