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Macromolecules essay introduction
Macromolecules essay introduction
Macromolecules essay introduction
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1. Polysaccharides and Polypeptides
Polysaccharides and Polypeptides are similar in the detail that they are macromolecules joined together to form organic compounds. They both form their bonds through dehydration synthesis. Your body can use both elements for energy, however, polysaccharides are the first choice and polypeptides are more of a stored energy source. Both can be broken down through hydrolysis. They also have a chain like structure. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates, their main function is to give us energy. They are polymers of monosaccharides made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Starch is one form of a polysaccharide, it consists entirely of α- glucose molecules linked in long chains. Plants store glucose in the polysaccharide
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Cellulose is different than starch in that it is made up of β-glucose. This is a storage molecule for plants and their seed. Cellulose is the main component in the cell wall of plants. It is not broken down easily by most creatures making it work well as a biological structural material. Some animals like cows and horses are able to break cellulose down because of symbiotic bacteria and protozoa in their digestive tracts.
Polypeptides are made up of long unbranched chains composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The general structure of the amino acid is an amino group and carboxyl group bonded to a central carbon atom with an additional hydrogen and a functional side group indicated by R. Methionine is one of the macromolecules that can form an amino acid. It is often the first amino acid in a chain of amino acids.
2. Carbon
Carbon is a great element for our planet because it have 6 electrons. Two of the electrons are in the inner shell and the other four electrons are in the other shell. This makes carbon very bondable. Because of this carbon has the ability for multiple molecules to share identical molecular formulas but possess different three-dimensional
Humans, bears, and trees all have one thing in common, they all have atoms and molecules. They also need the four elements of life to survive, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. An atom is the smallest part of an element that is still that element. A molecule is two or more atoms joined and acting as a unit. There are four different types of molecules, they are, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
The slight differences in the way their atoms are arranged give them slightly different properties. These are shown below: α-glucose: β-glucose: Galatose: Fructose: [IMAGE] [IMAGE] The main function of monosaccharide is that they are able to move through bodies, gut walls and therefore important as a source of energy. All other carbohydrates have to be converted to monosaccharides before energy can be released and its is due to it’s small size they are very soluble and it is the form of monosaccharides that all carbohydrates are carried in the blood.
The O-specific polysaccharide is a heteropolysaccharide made up of a chain of repeating oligosaccharide units, ( 3 to 8 monosaccharides each) which are strain specific and determinative for the serological identity of the respective bacterium.O-polysaccharides are located on the outer surface exposed to the outer environment of the bacterium. 1-8 glycosyl residues can be seen in O- polysaccharide region as repeating units among various gram negative strains. These sugars varies in their types, sequence, substitution, chemical linkage, ring forms, substitution, presence or absence of non carbohydrate moiety etc giving a heterogenic nature for O-polysaccharides from different gram negative stains (Erridge et al., 2002).The diverse and specific arrangements utilizing various sugar monomers in the O-polysaccharide of LPS generates hundreds of distinct patterns or serotypes for each gram negative bacterial strains in nature. There are approximately 1-50 subunits (repeating units) well represented to complete the O-polysaccharide chain (Erridge et al., 2002). Each subunit encompasses three to eight sugar units and there may be up to fifty identical subunits in an O –chain. Some bacteria display shorter O-chains on average than others. The smooth type Salmonella species are in this category. In some cases, the last sugar unit at the non reducing end of O-chain carries a substituent which blocks the further addition subunits acting as a terminal signal. The sugar monomers in the repeating subunits of O-polysacchride chain may be linear or branched, homopolymers (with a single monosaccharide component) or heteropolymers in which frequently it was seen. A particular gram negative strain can produce multiple O-polysaccharide chain lengths...
Starches are found in bread, rice, some fruits, some vegetables, and potatoes. Carbohydrates are mainly tasked with providing your body with energy. However, in some instances where the body lacks enough fibre, the carbohydrates can be broken down to provide a replacement for fibre. Proteins are the building blocks for your body. Proteins are broken down into amino acids.
Cellulases are o- glycosyl hydrolases (GHs) that hydrolyse β-1,4 glucosidic bonds in cellulose. Cellulase system is grouped into “glycoside hydrolases (GH) family” classified by different means, according to their substrate specifities, reaction, mechanisms or structural similarities. The cellulase complex is found to contain three basic components which may be present either as single polypeptide or can be grouped together into multienzyme complex known as cellulosome. Cellulase system is composed of three main classes based on their activity toward a wide range of substrates. This is rather difficult, since the enzymes have overlapping specificities toward substrates which themselves are poorly defined. The three main classes are:
The enzyme pancreas amylase causes the decomposition of starch. The starch during the chemical reaction broken down into disaccharides, lactase, sucrase, and maltase forms of pure sugar. Disaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides. Lactase changed into lactose, then into glucose and galactose sucrase changed sucrose into glucose and fructose these are all forms of sugars. These sugar may not all be utilized by the body. Maltase breaks down maltose 2 form molecules of glucose. Protein -stomach Pepcid and HCI break down proteins. These protein continue during the chemical reaction change to polypeptides. In the small intestines- Trypsin breaks down proteins and polypeptides to dipeptides. Then the dipeptides are changed into chymotrypsin decomposition of proteins and polypeptides to dipeptides. Carboxypeptidase breaks down polypeptides and dipeptides to amino acids. Aminopeptidase disintegrates of polypeptides & dipeptides to amino acids. Dipeptidase dissects of dipeptides to amino acids. Amino acids are more utilized by the digestive process; they are the building blocks of protein. Fats start the chemical digestive process in the mouth, this maybe because that many fats take longer to decompose. Lingual lipase has a minor role in beginning fat digestion. The stomach has an immense amount of chemical reaction going on at one time.
Starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin are all examples of polysaccharides. According to the BIO 1510 Lab Manual (2016) polysaccharides are not very soluble in water but can be made to go into solution through heating or agitation. Polysaccharides are excellent energy storage molecules because they are easily built and broken down by enzymes. Forming fairly compact structures, polysaccharides allow energy storage without the space required by a pool of free glucose monomers. Other polysaccharides form strong fibers that provide protection and structural support in both plants and animals. (Carbohydrates.” Home,
The primary method to control gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is through dietary regulation. The most effective method to control GDM via diet is through carbohydrate restriction and/or selectivity. It is recommended that pregnant women with GDM reduce their carbohydrate intake to 40% of the total caloric intake or can maintain a 60% carbohydrate intake but those carbohydrates must all come from low glycemic index foods. Examples of low glycemic foods are apples, spinach, black beans, split peas, oatmeal, and quinoa. Additional suggestions are to eat complex carbohydrates instead of simple, refined sugars. Eat small, frequent meals and snack often in between meals in order to maintain constant glucose levels throughout the day.
Each protein is a large complex molecule; these molecules are made up of. of a string of amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that occur naturally to form proteins and they all have the same basic structure. The. The 20 amino acids the body needs can be linked in.
Carbohydrates For my health project, I did carbohydrates. They are the bodies energy source. Carbohydrates supply the body with the energy it needs to function. They are found almost exclusively in plant foods, such as fruits, vegetables, peas, and beans.
present at all times but it must retain some of them. All plant life on Earth benefits from the ability of water to make a hydrogen bond with another substance of similar electronegative charge. Cellulose, the substance that makes up cell walls and paper products, is a hydrophilic substance ("water-loving"). It interacts with water but, unlike other hydrophilic substances, it will not dissolve in it. Cellulose can form strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules. This explains why a paper towel will "wick" water upwards when it comes in contact with it.
A polypeptide chain is a series of amino acids that are joined by the peptide bonds. Each amino acid in a polypeptide chain is called a residue. It also has polarity because its ends are different. The backbone or main chain is the part of the polypeptide chain that is made up of a regularly repeating part and is rich with the potential for hydrogen-bonding. There is also a variable part, which comprises the distinct side chain. Each residue of the chain has a carbonyl group, which is good hydrogen-bond acceptor, and an NH group, which is a good hydrogen-bond donor. The groups interact with the functional groups of the side chains and each other to stabilize structures. Proteins are polypeptide chains that have 500 to 2,000 amino acid residues. Oligopeptides, or peptides, are made up of small numbers of amino acids. Each protein has a precisely defined, unique amino acid sequence, referred to as its primary structure. The amino acid sequences of proteins are determined by the nucleotide sequences of genes because nucleotides in DNA specify a complimentary sequence in RNA, which specifies the amino acid sequence. Amino acid sequences determine the 3D structures of proteins. An alteration in the amino acid sequence can produce disease and abnormal function. All of the different ways
The carbon cycle is known as an essential part in life itself. Although carbon is limited on earth Its constant cycle allows it to be set in different places and forms. The reactions that move carbon around make up a giant web called the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle can be defined as the continuous biological process through which the carbon is exchanged between the environment and the organisms. Carbon specifically, is a major attribute of the Biogeochemistry of the planet ,as it is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon is the only element other than Silicon to form long continuous chains, as It is a nonmetallic tetravalent. however, silicon having weaker inter molecular forces
Carbon Carbon is one of the basic elements of matter (Bush 1230-1231). The name carbon comes from the Latin word "carbo" meaning charcoal. Carbon is the sixth most abundant element (Gangson). More than 1,000,000 compounds are made from carbon (Carbon (C)). "The Element Carbon is defined as a naturally abundant non-metallic element that occurs in many inorganic and in all organic compounds, exists freely as graphite and diamond and as a constituent of coal, limestone, and petroleum, and is capable of chemical self-bonding to form an enormous number of chemically, biologically, and commercially important molecules.
The most important nutrient categories are starches, minerals, sugars, and electrolytes. Starches and minerals fit into the area of complex carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides (many sugars bonded together). Because of the multiple bonds, polysaccharides are able to store energy for later use. Simple sugars make up the other group of carbohydrates. The bonding structures of simple sugars are much less advanced that than those of complex carbohydrates. This allows for the burning of simple sugars in an athlete's body. Electrolytes are a category of their own because they are helpful to an athlete all of the time, whether energy storage or energy burning is needed.