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Artificial intelligence history
An essay on the topic ethics of artificial intelligence
An essay on the topic ethics of artificial intelligence
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Mind and Machine: The Essay
Technology has traditionally evolved as the result of human needs. Invention, when prized and rewarded, will invariably rise-up to meet the free market demands of society. It is in this realm that Artificial Intelligence research and the resultant expert systems have been forged.
Much of the material that relates to the field of Artificial Intelligence deals with human psychology and the nature of consciousness. Exhaustive debate on consciousness and the possibilities of consciousnessness in machines has adequately, in my opinion, revealed that it is most unlikely that we will ever converse or interract with a machine of artificial consciousness.
In John Searle's collection of lectures, Minds, Brains and Science, arguments centering around the mind-body problem alone is sufficient to convince a reasonable person that there is no way science will ever unravel the mysteries of consciousness.
Key to Searle's analysis of consciousness in the context of Artificial Intelligence machines are refutations of strong and weak AI theses. Strong AI Theorists (SATs) believe that in the future, mankind will forge machines that will think as well as, if not better than humans. To them, pesent technology constrains this achievement. The Weak AI Theorists (WATs), almost converse to the SATs, believe that if a machine performs functions that resemble a human's, then there must be a correlation between it and consciousness. To them, there is no technological impediment to thinking machines, because our most advanced machines already think.
It is important to review Searle's refutations of these respective theorists' proposition to establish a foundation (for the purpose of this essay) for discussing the applications of Artificial Intelligence, both now and in the future.
Strong AI Thesis
Strong AI Thesis, according to Searle, can be described in four basic propositions. Proposition one categorizes human thought as the result of computational processes. Given enough computational power, memory, inputs, etc., machines will be able to think, if you believe this proposition. Proposition two, in essence, relegates the human mind to the software bin. Proponents of this proposition believe that humans just happen to have biological computers that run "wetware" as opposed to software. Proposition three, the Turing proposition, holds that...
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.... Translation is a wonderful possibility of these expert systems. Imagine the ability to have a device translate your English spoken words into Mandarin Chinese! This goes beyond simple languages and syntactical manipulation. Cultural gulfs in language would also be the focus of such devices.
Through the course of Mind and Machine, we have established that artificial intelligence's function will not be to replicate the conscious state of man, but to act as an auxiliary to him. Proponents of Strong AI Thesis and Weak AI Thesis may hold out, but the inevitable will manifest itself in the end.
It may be easy to ridicule those proponents, but I submit that in their research into making conscious machines, they are doing the field a favor in the innovations and discoveries they make.
In conclusion, technology will prevail in the field of expert systems only if the philosophy behind them is clear and strong. We should not strive to make machines that may supplant our causal powers, but rather ones that complement them. To me, these expert systems will not replace man - they shouldn't. We will see a future where we shall increasingly find ourselves working beside intelligent systems.
... in 21th century, and it might already dominate humans’ life. Jastrow predicted computer will be part of human society in the future, and Levy’s real life examples matched Jastrow’s prediction. The computer intelligence that Jastrow mentioned was about imitated human brain and reasoning mechanism. However, according to Levy, computer intelligence nowadays is about developing AI’s own reasoning pattern and handling complicated task from data sets and algorithms, which is nothing like human. From Levy’s view on today’s version of AI technology, Jastrow’s prediction about AI evolution is not going to happen. As computer intelligence does not aim to recreate a human brain, the whole idea of computer substitutes human does not exist. Also, Levy said it is irrelevant to fear AI may control human, as people in today’s society cannot live without computer intelligence.
Searle's argument delineates what he believes to be the invalidity of the computational paradigm's and artificial intelligence's (AI) view of the human mind. He first distinguishes between strong and weak AI. Searle finds weak AI as a perfectly acceptable investigation in that it uses the computer as a strong tool for studying the mind. This in effect does not observe or formulate any contentions as to the operation of the mind, but is used as another psychological, investigative mechanism. In contrast, strong AI states that the computer can be created so that it actually is the mind. We must first describe what exactly this entails. In order to be the mind, the computer must be able to not only understand, but to have cognitive states. Also, the programs by which the computer operates are the focus of the computational paradigm, and these are the explanations of the mental states. Searle's argument is against the claims of Shank and other computationalists who have created SHRDLU and ELIZA, that their computer programs can (1) be ascribe...
I will begin by providing a brief overview of the thought experiment and how Searle derives his argument. Imagine there is someone in a room, say Searle himself, and he has a rulebook that explains what to write when he sees certain Chinese symbols. On the other side of the room is a Chinese speaker who writes Searle a note. After Searle receives the message, he must respond—he uses the rulebook to write a perfectly coherent response back to the actual Chinese speaker. From an objective perspective, you would not say that Searle is actually able to write in Chinese fluently—he does not understand Chinese, he only knows how to compute symbols. Searle argues that this is exactly what happens if a computer where to respond to the note in Chinese. He claims that computers are only able to compute information without actually being able to understand the information they are computing. This fails the first premise of strong AI. It also fails the second premise of strong AI because even if a computer were capable of understanding the communication it is having in Chinese, it would not be able to explain how this understanding occurs.
"Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness." Encyclopedia of Consciousness. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology, 2009. Credo Reference. Web. 26 April 2011.
	After the war there was much poverty and industrial unrest in Italy. Mussolini’s political views were changing during this time. The desire grew in him to be the strong man of Italy who would vesture order, rule as a dictator, and lead his country to national greatness. To achieve his dream, he formed the Fascist party, known as the Blackshirts, of whom he was the recognized leader. In the beginning it was composed mainly of ex-serviceman, the Fascists restored order in Italy by force, breaking up the Socialist and Communist organizations of the workers. Guided by Mussolini, they aimed to seize power and bring to an end to parliamentary democracy, which they most wanted to.
Computers are machines that take syntactical information only and then function based on a program made from syntactical information. They cannot change the function of that program unless formally stated to through more information. That is inherently different from a human mind, in that a computer never takes semantic information into account when it comes to its programming. Searle’s formal argument thus amounts to that brains cause minds. Semantics cannot be derived from syntax alone. Computers are defined by a formal structure, in other words, a syntactical structure. Finally, minds have semantic content. The argument then concludes that the way the mind functions in the brain cannot be likened to running a program in a computer, and programs themselves are insufficient to give a system thought. (Searle, p.682) In conclusion, a computer cannot think and the view of strong AI is false. Further evidence for this argument is provided in Searle’s Chinese Room thought-experiment. The Chinese Room states that I, who does not know Chinese, am locked in a room that has several baskets filled with Chinese symbols. Also in that room is a rulebook that specifies the various manipulations of the symbols purely based on their syntax, not their semantics. For example, a rule might say move the squiggly
In this paper I will evaluate and present A.M. Turing’s test for machine intelligence and describe how the test works. I will explain how the Turing test is a good way to answer if machines can think. I will also discuss Objection (4) the argument from Consciousness and Objection (6) Lady Lovelace’s Objection and how Turing responded to both of the objections. And lastly, I will give my opinion on about the Turing test and if the test is a good way to answer if a machine can think.
The leadership of Mussolini could be argued to be a highly important reason in the rise of the Fascists but other influences which could be cited, like the system of proportional representation, the tensions in Italy over what had been gained for the role they had played in WWI and also the fear of Communism and of Socialism, should not be overlooked. After WWI, Italy was left with severe economic problems; all war-related industry ceased causing mass unemployment and trade union membership soared leaving in its wake two troubled years, known as Biennio Rosso. Coalition governments became commonplace after the introduction of proportional representation (the percentage of votes is equal to the number of seats won) as it allowed many smaller parties to gain power. This fairer voting system ensured that it was nearly impossible to gain complete control to form a strong government and so was unsuccessful in solving the problems Italy faced after WWI. Socialism was became the leading ideology after the war as the Partito Socialista Italiano (PSI) developed into Italy’s largest political party. This caused the middle and upper classes extreme anxiety as they feared revolts by the working class as had been seen in Russia in the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, a bloody affair in which the Winter Palace was captured and destroyed by the working class citizens. Fear of a similar massacre, which the Socialists were striving for, and of Communism led the middle and upper classes to find the solution through another political party: the Fascists.
“Fascism is a religion. The twentieth century will be known in history as the century of fascism” (Fascist). Those are the words of Benito Mussolini, an Italian journalist who started a political party of his own. Born in 1883, Mussolini became involved in socialist politics in Switzerland when he moved there in 1902 (BBC). Although he was active with the socialist party, Mussolini started publishing editorials that supported World War I, which he was drafted in himself in 1915 (Mussolini). This led to his expulsion from the socialist party. Ready for a major change, Mussolini gathered many nationalistic groups in Italy together and formed a single organization under his leadership (Mussolini). Rising to power in the wake of the Great War, Benito Mussolini was a violent, military-minded dictator who saw to the emergence of the National Fascist Party in Italy.
That there is a difference between religion and morality is uncontroversial. How can atheism be interpreted as a moral alternative? Although religion and morality reflect different values, they are deeply tangled for most individuals. In many cases, a person’s moral principles are grounded in religious commitments. In other cases, people find the source of morality outside of religion, such as the inherent value of all human beings. My central claim is that atheism rather than a theologically based value system offers the moral high ground.
...lligent, intentional activity taking place inside the room and the digital computer. The proponents of Searle’s argument, however, would counter that if there is an entity which does computation, such as human being or computer, it cannot understand the meanings of the symbols it uses. They maintain that digital computers do not understand the input given in or the output given out. But it cannot be claimed that the digital computers as whole cannot understand. Someone who only inputs data, being only a part of the system, cannot know about the system as whole. If there is a person inside the Chinese room manipulating the symbols, the person is already intentional and has a mental state, thus, due to the seamless integration of their systems of hardware and software that understand the inputs and outputs as whole systems, digital computers too have states of mind.
In order to see how artificial intelligence plays a role on today’s society, I believe it is important to dispel any misconceptions about what artificial intelligence is. Artificial intelligence has been defined many different ways, but the commonality between all of them is that artificial intelligence theory and development of computer systems that are able to perform tasks that would normally require a human intelligence such as decision making, visual recognition, or speech recognition. However, human intelligence is a very ambiguous term. I believe there are three main attributes an artificial intelligence system has that makes it representative of human intelligence (Source 1). The first is problem solving, the ability to look ahead several steps in the decision making process and being able to choose the best solution (Source 1). The second is the representation of knowledge (Source 1). While knowledge is usually gained through experience or education, intelligent agents could very well possibly have a different form of knowledge. Access to the internet, the la...
Nowadays, healthy is the number one individual and also governmental concern. As the saying goes, ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor away’ is clearly show that eat nutritious food such as fruits and vegetables can provide a good health and can prevent us from harmful diseases. As we know, vegetables provided various types of vitamins needed by the body for instance pumpkin contains a lot of vitamin A, tomatoes contain vitamin C and spinach contains folate. Pumpkin is one of nature’s riches sources of alpha-carotene, a carotenoid that converts to retinol which is a form of vitamin A. The amount of vitamin A that contain in the pumpkin per serving (116g) is 171%, vitamin C 17%, calcium 2% and iron 5% (Pumpkin raw, 2014). There are a lot of benefits when consuming vitamin A, for example this vitamin promotes healthy vision, bone growth, reproduction and help boosts our immune system. Apart from that, a diet high in vitamin A may lower the risk of many types of cancer. Besides, some vegetables also contain a lot of vitamin C such as tomatoes, bell peppers and broccoli. The function of vitamin C is it helps heal the wounds and keep away the body from bacterial infection. According to researchers at Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, they discovered that vitamin C can kill drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB) bacteria (Libov, 2013, para. 3). Besides that, vitamin C
In an article titled “10 Reasons Why Atheists Do It Better”, number 4 on the list is Self-Esteem and Self-Reliance. Atheists have an indirect benefit of having more confidence and self-esteem. “ Atheists are not being told that they are guilty and sinful, as is the case with many religious teachings. This leads to higher self-esteem and a feeling of control over life’s events. As atheists do not expect a deity to help them solve a problem, they will address it personally and directly. When there’s no wheel of life, reincarnation, heaven or hell, the responsibility for made choices lies with individuals.” (Ratner) Additionally, in a study conducted by Gallup Data and World Happiness Index in 2010 and 2016, the world’s happiest countries are also the world’s least religious countries. “This year’s winner (2016) was Denmark, followed closely by Switzerland, Iceland, and Norway” as compared to 2010’s winners Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands, which were not much different.
Artificial Intelligence “is the ability of a human-made machine to emulate or simulate human methods for the deductive and inductive acquisition and application of knowledge and reason” (Bock, 182). The early years of artificial intelligence were seen through robots as they exemplified the advances and potential, while today AI has been integrated society through technology. The beginning of the thought of artificial intelligence happened concurrently with the rise of computers and the dotcom boom. For many, the utilization of computers in the world was the most advanced role they could ever see machines taking. However, life has drastically changed from the 1950s. This essay will explore the history of artificial intelligence, discuss the