Introduction The Consolidation of information is a process which transfers information from the STM (Short Term Memory) to the LTM (Long Term Memory). It is a process involved in the formation of a long term memory over a period of time. The psychology term consolidation is defined as “the process by which one’s short-term memories become more firmly established as long-term memories” (Grohol, 2008). The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory (Appendix 2) displays the process of retaining a memory, or otherwise known the consolidation process. In order to retain a memory it has to be transferred from the STM to the LTM neurologically. When the brain is transferring information neurologically LTP (Long Term Potentiation) is the desired goal because …show more content…
it allows the synapse (A junction between two nerve cells by which impulses pass through by diffusion via the neurotransmitter) to increase in strength as more connections appear whilst signals increase between two neurons which consequently creates a biophysical or biochemical memory trace. The connection is the basic formulation of memory and it is important when consolidating information. (Gold & Mcgaugh, 1975) The Consolidation theory/process first derived from Germany in 1885 by Prof.
Georg Elias Muller and his young student Alfons Pilzecker (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2015). Collectively the pair studied and researched the idea of consolidation, in 1900 the two published a monograph considering the concept that “learning does not induce instantaneous permanent memories, but that memory takes time to be ‘fixed’ (consolidated). Consequently, memory remains vulnerable to disruption for a period of time after learning”. (Lechner, Squire et al, 1999). From Muller and Pilzecker’s work researchers like Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968 began to extend and research with the technology they had on the consolidation process. Atkinson and Shiffrin with thorough research developed the Multi Store Model (Appendix 1) which defines the roles within the consolidation process. Atkinson and Shiffrin found that humans encode information from sensory registers into a usable format, store the STM in LTM by rehearsal then finally retrieve the information (Atkinson & Shiffrin, …show more content…
1968). James McGaugh also continued from the early theories of Muller and Pilzecker, McGaugh focused on retroactive amnesia ultimately focussing on the neurobiology of learning and memory formulation. Mcgaugh is credited with reformulating the previous consolidation theories written by Muller and Pilzecker, instead to be suitable for biological testing. (Gold & McGaugh, 1975) George Miller investigated the STM with his ‘The Magical Number seven Experiment’ and he found that STM has a retention period of 7 seconds plus or minus two; in order to retain the memory there must be a connection, a rehearsal and an effective retrieval. Miller discovered that memory retrieval would be more frequent when ‘chunking’ or mnemonic devices (putting numbers or information in clusters) are used. (Miller, 1956) The investigation presented analyses the retrieval of information in order to learn and understand more about the human ability to consolidate information. Miller also investigated the idea of chunking and used chunking to enhance recall ability in his research. Chunking is defined as “the grouping together of a number of items by the mind, after which they can be remembered as a single item, such as a word or number” (Collins English Dictionary, 2003) Miller concluded ‘chunking’ which is a phenomenon allows the participant to rearrange information into a more meaningful; format therefore having a meaningful connection with it. Further, research by Bower in 1970 and 1972 provided sufficient evidence of this phenomenon strengthening short term memory and the recall of the information (Clarke et al, 2012). The aim of the investigation was to provide plausible evidence displaying the consolidation process working or failing with different tests and environments. Prior to the commencement of the research, the hypothesis is that information is best consolidated when visually presented as therefore retrieval and recall is frequent. Method: The Participants undertook three different tests; the tests in theory are the same however different information is required to be recalled each time. The tests will be analysing the recall ability of the participants as they will be given different numbers in differing ways. The Research Design and Procedure: Test 1 Participant receives 9 random numbers on a printed piece of paper The Random numbers are 964870235 The participant has 30 seconds with the numbers to memorize them Participant has a rehearsal time of 5 minutes without the numbers in front of them The Participant is required to recall the numbers if possible Test 2 The Researcher reads aloud 9 random numbers to the Participant 3 times over a period of 30 seconds The Random numbers are 635970172 The participant has 30 seconds of time to hear the numbers being read aloud Participant has a rehearsal time of 5 minutes without the spoken numbers The Participant is required to recall the numbers if possible Test 3 Participant receives 9 random “Chunked” numbers on a piece of paper The Random “Chunked” numbers are 482 197 908 The participant has 30 seconds with the numbers to memorize them Participant has a rehearsal time of 5 minutes The Participant is required to recall the numbers The research design uses techniques from Ebbinghuas, Muller & Pilzecker and Atkinson & Shiffrin. The research design not only tests the recall and retention of information but the recall and retention of information after an interval whereby the participants will be exposed to numerous environmental stimuli and interactions within the Sensory Registers. The design allows a focus on rehearsal which is crucial for retention and recalling of the information later in the research design (Model of Memory, Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). The number of numbers (random) is the maximum number of “bits” of information Miller found that the STM can hold, therefore rehearsal is vital for recalling the information. The reason why there was a 30 second time for memorization was because 30 seconds is the maximum amount of time the STM can hold 9 “bits” of information for. (Miller, 1956) The research design is capable of proving or disproving the hypothesis because it tests recall in different types of environments and the researcher administers information differently. E.g. written numbers, spoken numbers and written ‘chunked’ numbers. Participants: Sample size of the Participants is 3. Participants were sourced randomly within School. They were all teenagers Variables: The Independent variable (IV) is the variable the researcher manipulates, and is assumed to have a direct impact upon the dependent variable. (Mcleod S, 2008) The Dependent Variable (DV) is the variable the researcher measures after making changes to the IV that is assumed to affect the DV. (Mcleod S, 2008) IV is the type of test and different information throughout the tests DV measured is the recall ability of the participant after each of the tests. Materials: Two pieces of Paper with random numbers (Test 1), one paper of which contains chunked numbers (Test 3) An IPhone with the recorded spoken random numbers (Test 2) A stopwatch to measure 5 minutes of retention and rehearsal time A piece of paper to record the numbers recalled and time of recall Results: Figure 1 displays the first participant’s results over the three different tests as percentages. Participant 1 is strong in Tests 1 and 3 therefore the graph is illustrated as a multimodal sequence. Figure 2 represents Participant 2’s results over all 3 of the tests. The graph illustrates a “double peaked” distribution although Test 2 was below 50%. In Figure 3 exhibits Participant 3’s results over all of the tests. Participant 3 displays very strong retention results throughout the tests collectively. Figure 4 presents the mean (average) retention ability results throughout all of the individual tests. The results represent strong levels of retention in Tests 1 & 3 however Test 2 is below 50%, therefore retention was less frequent. Analysis: Data (%) Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean 73% 47% 96% Median 77% 44% 100% Mode No Mode No Mode 100% The Mean calculation was (Recalled Numbers)/(Total Numbers ) ×100 e.g. 7/(9 ) ×100=77% The Median was the middle value in each of the data collections The Mode was the most common data value (if any). Discussion: Test 1 received strong responses from the Participants, the mean was 73% which is about 7 number recalled out of the 9. Miller found that the STM could withhold 7 (+ or – 2) “bits” of information and this theory supports the data collected. Although the average of Test 1 (72%) compared to Test 3 is not as high, Test 1 is not entirely poor I regard to Miller’s theory, in fact Test 1 is the median of his findings. Test 2 had a collective mean score of 47% meaning that only about 4 or 5 of the numbers were recalled after the 5 minute rehearsal period.
This test was the most unsuccessful according to the primary data gathered. There is a rapid decline in figure 1, 2 and 3 and mainly 4 regarding percentages (recalled numbers) compared to Tests 1 and 3. Atkinson & Shiffrin clearly divide the sensory registers from the Short Term Memory because as proven via failure to do so in Test 2, information must be acknowledged via sensory registers, encoded, rehearsed and retrieved in order to formulate a basic memory. All Participants were successful in transferring information to the STM however unsuccessful in rehearsing and transferring the information to the LTM, consequently failing in making a neurobiological memory trace. The obtainment of the information (9 numbers) was verbal and there was no visual representation of this information which could be a factor in the low recall as
well. From the results there is a clear or similar pattern regarding Test 3. From prior research Bower and Miller found that using “chunked” information strengthened memory recall, this is evident in Test 3 as the mean for Test 3 was 96% which was greater than Test 1 which was 73%. Two participants out of the three recalled all “chunked” numbers therefore this technique was the most effective in trying to remember the information. Further, the mean of Test 3 has represented all of the participants’ abilities to create an extensive memory trace via the synapse therefore LTP is more likely to occur. Collectively throughout the 3 tests the mean was 72% which consequently proves (especially in Test 1 & 3) that Miller’s “Magic Number Seven” research supports these findings because the average represents about 7 “bits” of information therefore in Test 3 P1 and P2 using the “chunking” technique were able to hold according to Miller the maximum of 9 “bits” of information in their respective STM’s. These results show that Visual information is recalled more frequently and correctly than verbal information however more visual “chunked” information is recalled.
Hippocampus is a small, curved region, which exists in both hemispheres of the brain and plays a vital role in emotions, learning and acquisition of new information. It also contributes majorly to long term memory, which is permanent information stored in the brain. Although long term memory is the last information that can be forgotten, its impairment has become very common nowadays. The dysfunction is exemplified by many neurological disorders such as amnesia. There are two types of amnesia, anterograde and retrograde. Anterograde amnesia is inability in forming new information, while retrograde refers to the loss of the past memory. As suggested by Cipolotti and Bird (2006), hippocampus’s lesions are responsible for both types of amnesia. According to multiple trace theory, the author suggests that hippocampal region plays a major role in effective retrieving of episodic memory (Cipolotti and Bird, 2006). For example, patients with hippocampal damage show extensively ungraded retrograde amnesia (Cipolotti and Bird, 2006). They have a difficult time in retrieving information from their non-personal episodic events and autobiographical memory. However, this theory conflicts with standard model of consolidation. The difference between these theories suggests that researchers need to do more work to solve this controversy. Besides retrieving information, hippocampus is also important in obtaining new semantic information, as well as familiarity and recollection (Cipolotti and Bird, 2006). For instance, hippocampal amnesic patient V.C shows in ability to acquire new semantic knowledge such as vocabularies and factual concepts (Cipolotti and Bird, 2006). He is also unable to recognize and recall even...
Memory is a group of related mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving information (Hockenberry and Hocenberry page 232). I will be addressing two specific types of memory: short-term memory and long-term memory. Short-term memory holds temporary information transferred from sensory memory or long-term memory. Sensory memory is the first stage of memory and obtains information for a brief amount of time. Short-term memory is also called active memory and is stored in the prefrontal cortex which is the most active part of the brain during an activity. Short-term memory can hold information for roughly twenty seconds, but sensory memory holds information for a shorter amount of time. We usually store things such
Do you ever wonder how our brains can remember so many things? Our minds are a lot like computers “we can draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present” (Sternberg, 1999). “Memory is a group of related mental processes that are involved inacquiring, storing, and retrieving information” (Psychology, page 228). “We have 3 main stages of memory our sensory memory, short- term memory, and long term memory.” I will be stating some interesting facts about each one. Beginning with our sensory memory, one of the facts I found from the book was that “The very brief time information is held in our sensory memory you “select,” or pay attention to, just a few aspects of all the environmental information that’sbeing registered
Long-term memory is comprised of three types of retrieval: cued recall, free recall, and serial recall. Recall is the capacity to reiterate stored information. Cued recall involves clues to help remember the needed information. Serial recall is retrieving information and repeating it in a specific order. F...
As brain systems begin working, memory also starts to work. (4). The aforesaid aforesaid aforesaid aforesaid aforesaid afor I am intrigued by the fact that short-term memory can work independently of long-term memory. While long-term memory can be achieved through the repetition of a fact that is in the short-term memory, it appears that in amnesiac patients their long-term memory tends to return faster than their short-term memory. They can remember their favorite childhood food, but cannot remember why they are in the hospital.
The brain is a flexible organ, a collection of synapses that constantly reshape the circuitry of our brains. And from that, we know that neuron activity corresponds to memory, the more firing between a given set of neurons, the stronger the connection. That is why some memories are stronger than others. Memories are anything but concrete and can be easily altered. Loss of memory, and creation of new memory, is a processing that never rest, and having a properly functioning memory is important in day-to-day life. The most commonly known forms are, short-term memory (or STM) and long term-memory (or LTM). Forgetting is done more easily by STM than LTM, due to reasons like, it has a limited capacity, and the information needs to be rehearsed to stick. LTM does not have limited capacity and can retain information in many different forms.
The memory describes as the mental capacity to retain and revive visual, auditory and physical information (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Through this, one is able to remember facts, events, impressions and many past experiences (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). There are three components to the memory. These are the sensory memory, short-term memory and the long-term memory (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). The sensory stage is where all types of stimuli are registered and processed (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Depending on the amount of attention and importance placed in the incoming information, will determine whether the information will enter the short-term memory (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). This describes the encoding phase that takes place in the short-term memory stage where the brain converts the information into a form in order for it to be contained for a later stage (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Owing to the limited space in the short-term memory, all information and stimuli that enters through here are subject to decay and further forgotten (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Only through emphasis and repetition will the information enter and stay in the long-term memory (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). This is where the storage phase takes place w...
The Information Processing Theory can be described as how the memory processes or absorbs information. The theory correlates with learning because is known as our memory process; processing and storing data. This theory is broken down into three groups: working memory, short term memory and long term memory. Short term memory is known as sensory store. Information is usually stored for one to two seconds. When attend to, the information in sensory store moves to the working memory. Working memory can last about five to fifteen seconds. If information is not stored or encoded, it is subjected to being considered memory loss. However if the information is encoded or rehearsed, it is stored in long term memory. Long term memory allows
Memory is a process by which we learned are stored for future use. Like the computer, researchers have characterized human memory as an information processing system that has three separate stages during which an already stored memory is called in consciousness. This is called model memory. Once a computer has been named and stored, we can “call it up” by its name and use it again. Human memory works much in the same way. When we recall or bring a memory into consciousness, we have retrieved it. This process is known as memory retrieval. Sensory memory is a very but brief but extensive memory for sensory events. Short term memory is more limited in capacity than sensory memory but lasts longer. Proactive interference occurs when old materials learned more recently. Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned materials interferes with the retrieval of material learned earlier. The initial 10 to 20 second STM period often leads to a second phase, working memory, during which attention and conscious effort are brought to bear on the material at hand. Long-term memory is the memory stage that has a very large capacity and capability to store information relatively permanently. We use maintenance rehearsal when we want to save or maintain a memory for a short period. People who are instructed to remember a list use elaborative rehearsal, which adds meaning to material that we want to remember. These are the models of memory.
While there is a portion of the brain that focuses on everything, the part that deals with memory may work well, however when it doesn't, memory loss can occur. There were a total of four hundred and six involuntary memory chains(John H,Amanda M clevinger, and Ronan Bernas). The vast majority (99%) of the memories in an involuntary memory chain had the same time entry, of 406 chains, two hundred and eighty (69%) contained two memories, eighty (20%) contained three, thirty one (7%) contained four,and the remaining fifteen had five to eight chains. involuntary autobiographical memories are unintentional recollections of the past. Diary studies of involuntary memories have shown that they occur in two distinctly different ways.
The human brain has two distinct types of long-term memory that are used for some the most vital aspects of memory skills. Firstly, the main differences in the two would be procedural long-term memory is considered the feature of our memory of things that we can do. For instance, the procedural memory is responsible for memory sills, personal habits, and conditioned responses. As an example, consider the task of brushing your teeth, many would consider this task to be a part of the procedural long-term memory because not only is it a learned habit the task can be completely efficiently and without being consciously aware of the knowledge.
Well to begin with there are many ways to improve ones memory when it comes to taking a an examination. One of them being the depth of processing. The depth of processing is basically the more deeply we process information the better we tend to remember it. There are three verbal levels, one being visual, phonological and semantic. Visual and phonological are the two most shallow. So, for me to study and remember the information it would need to go into my semantic. A good way semantic can help with remembering information is by emphasizing what you are reading and by doing so it helps you create deeper levels of processing and it would endure longer in your long term memory. A way that memory works is by following the three systems of memory. It has three parts, sensory memory, short-term
Squire, Larry R.. "Short-term and Long-term Memory Processes." Memory and brain. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. 134-145. Print.
Learning to tie shoes and ride a bike requires the encoding, storing, and retrieving of past observations of the procedure. With a lot of practice, children master these skills so well that they are able to remember them the rest of their lives. Memory is the storing of information over time. It is one of the most important concepts in learning; if things are not remembered, no learning can take place. As a process, memory refers to the "dynamic mechanism associated with the retention and retrieval of information about past experiences" (Sternberg 260). We use our memory about the past to help us understand the present. The study or memory in psychology is used in different ways, as well as there are many different ways to study how memory works in humans. In psychology there are many tasks used to measure memory, and different types of memory storages that human's use, such as sensory storing, or short term storing. There are also a lot of techniques that humans use to improve their memory, which they can use to learn, such as mnemonic devices. All these things can be classified as important issues in the study of human memory and ways of learning.
Prior research into the structure of memory have suggested that memory is comprised up from three separate stores each performing a specific and relatively inflexible function (in Passer, Smith, Holt, Bremner, Sutherland, & Vliek, 2009). That is the multi-store model, developed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968 in Passer et al., 2009) who claim a sensory memory store, short-term memory store (STM) and a long-term memory store (LTM) (in Passer et al., 2009). Although to some, the multi store model provided an adequate explanation of memory processes, it was regarded as being too simplistic since short-term and long- term memories were far more complicated than originally thought (in Craik & Lockhart, 1972). In essence, the multi-store model stresses the importance of rehearsal to long term memory. While rehearsal is crucial as a means of transferring information from the STM to the LTM, this is not necessarily always the case (in Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968 in Passer et al., 2009). To this, sceptics challenged the idea of information being transferred from the STM to the LTM by active rehearsal since subsequent research has indicated that information had the potential to be stored in the LTM without it being actively rehearsed (in Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). In response to the difficulties and weaknesses presented in the multi-store model, an alternative model attempting to explain memory processes in a more precise manner was developed by Craik & Lockhart (1972 in Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Their theory of levels of processing proposes that different methods of encoding information into the memory will subsequently have an effect on recollection of information (in Craik & Lockhart, 1972). According to the levels of process...