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Steps in synaptic transmission
Functions and dysfunctions of neurotransmitters
Functions and dysfunctions of neurotransmitters
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Recommended: Steps in synaptic transmission
Lola needs larger and larger doses of the street drug in order to feel the drug's effect because it is affecting the synaptic transmission within her brain's nervous system. The synapse plays a big part in how neurons communicate in the body since the tiny gap at its junction, called the synaptic gap, is where neurotransmitters cross to another neuron to ensure the neuron will generate a neural impulse. It is very possible that the drug is an antagonist that is inhibiting or blocking certain neurotransmitters in her body to cross the synaptic gap and bind to sites on the receiving neuron. Without this binding, the neurotransmitter cannot fire, which will affect its purpose/action in the body. If this drug is an antagonist to the neurotransmitter
Chemistry of Psilocybin and Synaptic Transmitters Involved Psilocybin is a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that is ingested by eating the raw fungi. The mushroom can also be made into a tea and drunk. In some of the later studies done on psilocybin, the drug was synthetically produced and then either inhaled or injected by an IV. The drug enters the blood stream and can cross the blood brain barrier because of it relative metabolic similarity to serotonin (Fuller 1985). This means that since psilocybin is chemical resemblance to the neurotransmitter serotonin, psilocybin can trick the protein channels embedded in the membrane of the blood vessel and pass through as if it were serotonin and not a drug.
Synaptic Transmitters Involved in LSD Administration The nearly concurrent discovery of serotonin (5-HT) and LSD-25 in the 1950 's encouraged a lot of research to be done on the relationship between LSD and serotonin, which helped to develop a greater understanding of the role serotonin plays as a neurotransmitter in the brain (Nichols, 2004). Today it is believed that LSD (and other hallucinogens) stimulate 5-HT2A receptors (Kalat, 2004). Activation of these receptors causes cortical glutamate levels to increase. This is presumed to be a result of a "presynaptic receptor-mediated release" from neurons in the thalumus (Nichols, 2004).
Part of the Neuron Affected, Inhibitory or Excitatory Potential Changes and Ion Channels Affected by Psilocybin Psilocybin belongs to the classification of drugs called hallucinogens. Hallucinogens typically act by stimulating serotonin receptors at different times or for longer durations than serotonin itself would (Kalat 2004). When psilocybin enters the brain, the enzyme alkaline breaks down one of its phosphate groups through hydrolysis. It then becomes psilocin, an even stronger hallucinogen (Psilocybin 2003). It is particularly potent due to the position of its hydroxyl group (Jacobs 1984).
The prediction of the drug tolerance was based on drug effect theory stated that functional tolerance is an adaptation to disruptive effects of drugs on continuing patterns of neutral activity, instead of exposure to the drug itself. The drug effect theory has used before-and-after experiments. There are two groups in the before-and-after design experiment. The first group: the subjects receive drug after they tested on criterion on each tolerance trail. The second group: the subjects receive drug before they tested on criterion to react on each tolerance trail. As the results of the before-and-after experiment according to the drug-effect theory, tolerance is significantly greater in the group that received drug-before test on each tolerance development trial than in the other group received drug-after-test. Greater tolerance was in drug before group because they repeatedly experience the effect of the drug on the performance.
Abstract: The human brain is the most complex organ in the body. Its functions control every aspect of life. It is important to attempt to comprehend the workings of the brain and to learn the effects of natural and unnatural substances on it. In order to look at chemical effects on the brain, one must first get an understanding for the chemicals as well as how the brain works to interpret and react to signals set out by these chemicals, rhythmically and physiologically. Several chemicals observed include: cocaine (and other chemicals), seratonin, and melatonin.
Ritalin is a brand name for methylphenidate. Ritalin is a mild central nervous system stimulant that doctors prescribe to treat several disorders. The most common use of Ritalin is for the treatment of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Another known use of Ritalin is in the treatment of Narcolepsy. A doctor might also prescribe it to treat depression. Ritalin and other drugs in the stimulant class, work by increasing the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin in the brain. Ritalin has been tested and proven safe to use in children ages six and older.
Drugs are substances that disturb this delicate balance, because they have “passkeys” that let them open certain “locks” located between the neurons. The brain automatically adjusts to these substances from outside the body by producing fewer of its own natural “keys”. Cocaine is type of drug that affects the dopamine is a neurotransmitter which is connected with emotions and noradrenalin is connected with alertness. Cocaine is considered as an illegal drug in most countries but some considered it as an legal drug. Although cocaine is an illegal drug earlier ancient people used to coonsider it as a medicine to treat many illness. Cocaine is absorbed in the dopamine and the...
Neurotransmitters are chemicals made by neurons and used by them to transmit signals to the other neurons or non-neuronal cells (e.g., skeletal muscle; myocardium, pineal glandular cells) that they innervate. The neurotransmitters produce their effects by being released into synapses when their neuron of origin fires (i.e., becomes depolarized) and then attaching to receptors in the membrane of the post-synaptic cells. This causes changes in the fluxes of particular ions across that membrane, making cells more likely to become depolarized, if the neurotransmitter happens to be excitatory, or less likely if it is inhibitory.
In recent years, a new phenomenon has been sweeping through the country. People, mainly college students, are taking medications typically prescribed for ADHD in order to enhance their cognitive performance. In “Brain Gain: The Underground World of ‘Neuroenhancing’ Drugs,” Margaret Talbot chronicles the stories of people who have had firsthand experiences with these drugs and leads the reader to consider their implications and consequences. The very purposeful structuring, phrasing, and evidence all come together to craft a fairly convincing argument that these “neuroenhancers” are causing problems in which that the general populace is not yet aware.
Speed can be swallowed as tablets, snorted through the nose as a type of powder or injected in liquid form. Some amphetamines can be prescribed by the doctor for medical problems. However Speed sold on the street is illegal, even if they have been previously prescribed. The drug Speed affects the way you think, feel and behave. It also has short and long term effects on your body. Effects can come on straight away or take longer depending on how you have taken it, or how the person reacts to it. The effects can last from four to eight hours. However if you get very bad thoughts or feelings, they can last from a few hours to many weeks.
The most commonly abused substances are Nicotine, Inhalants, Alcohol, Cocaine, Amphetamines, Prescription medications, Heroin, Ecstasy and Marijuana. 1a(National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2011) Initially, a person may find themselves using substances voluntarily and with confidence that they will be able to dictate their personal use. However, over the period of time that drug use is repeated, changes are taking place throughout the brain, whether it is functionally or structurally. Drugs contain chemicals that enter the communication system of the brain and disturb the way in which nerve cells would typically send, receive, and process information. The chemicals within these drugs will cause a disruption to the communication system by either imitating the brain’s natural chemical messengers or by over-stimulating the brains “reward system” by sending mass amounts of dopamine. As an individual prolongs his or her use of these substances, they may develop an addiction.
There are many biological factors that are involved with the addicted brain. "The addicted brain is distinctly different from the nonaddicted brain, as manifested by changes in brain metabolic activity, receptor availability, gene expression, and responsiveness to environmental cues." (2) In the brain, there are many changes that take place when drugs enter a person's blood stream. The pathway in the brain that the drugs take is first to the ventral tegmentum to the nucleus accumbens, and the drugs also go to the limbic system and the orbitofrontal cortex, which is called the mesolimbic reward system. The activation of this reward system seems to be the common element in what hooks drug users on drugs (2).
Absorption: The absorption of opioid drugs into the bloodstream is largely dependent on the user’s chosen route of administration for the drug, dosage, and lipid solubility. Most NMPOs are taken orally, and absorbed into the bloodstream from the walls of the intestine. Some abusers crush and convert whole prescription pills into powders that can be smoked, snorted, and injected easily. Alternative routes of administration enable users to combine NMPO active compounds with other drugs for a unique effect as well as increase drug bioavailability. More specifically, alternate routes of administration also result in a more potent and rapid delivery of drug to the brain, which often increases to the abuse potential of the drug (Kollins, 2003; Roset et al., 2001). Studies using nationally representative samples report that men use these alternative routes of administration more frequently than women (Back et al., 2011, 2010; Green et al., 2009). Back et al. reported in 2011, a striking disproportion between men and women in this regard; the majority of men in their sample reported frequently snorting (75%), or injecting (42%) their drugs, while women were much more likely to use NMPOs via oral administration (Back, Lawson et al., 2011).
Without contrast, the primary reason for drug abuse in individuals comes from the conscious state of addiction. According to Webster’s, addiction is described as “the fact or condition of being addicted to a particular substance, thing, or activity (Hacker, 2011).” Sure, human nature’s desire to conform to peer pressure might cause one to first try a certain drug, but the euphoric mental states found in drugs mentally trap many individuals into becoming dependent upon these sensations. With that being said, these sensations vary depending on the type of drug used.
The use of drugs is a controversial topic in society today. In general, addicts show a direct link between taking drugs and suffering from their effects. People abuse drugs for a wide variety of reasons. In most cases, the use of drugs will serve a type of purpose or will give some kind of reward. These reasons for use will differ with different kinds of drugs. Various reasons for using the substance can be pain relief, depression, anxiety and weariness, acceptance into a peer group, religion, and much more. Although reasons for using may vary for each individual, it is known by all that consequences of the abuse do exist. It is only further down the line when the effects of using can be seen.