Iconoclasm in the Early Middle Ages and the Present
Iconoclasm refers to the opposition and destruction of religious images by religious and imperial authorities. It is believed that Byzantine iconoclasm occurred in two waves, the first being during the 8th century and the second during the 9th century. There are many theories as to how and why iconoclasm started during the Byzantine Era and these will be debated. The methods and reasons of Byzantine iconoclasm will also be compared to modern day iconoclasm.
Although the actual year is disputed, the first Byzantine iconoclasm is believed to have started with Emperor Leo III around 723-725. (pg. 53) There are many different written sources that discuss what actually happened during this time, however not all coincide with each other completely. Nicephorous of Constantinople recalls the events in his “Short History” during the late 780’s making it one of the closest sources to the actual events. (pg. 53) He states that Leo heard volcanic eruptions on the islands of Thera and Therasia and he took these eruptions as a merciless sign from God and ultimately began planning the removal of icons. (pg. 53) In another source, “The Chronicle”, Theophane also mentions that Emperor Leo hears the volcanic eruptions on the islands, and states that he understood the Godly symbol as reassuring that what he was already doing was the right thing. Theophane states that before this eruption, Leo had met with a Jewish wizard who had promised him a reign of forty years if he removed the holy icons from churches. (pg. 53) This source however was written around 815, so it is uncertain how accurate Theophanes reports are. Theophane also stated that there was much opposition to Leo’s views from people...
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...rulers were unsuccessful and that iconophobic views would help strengthen the Byzantine Empire. (pg. 247) Under Leo’s command a council was assembled and met at Hagia Sophia three times to discuss the matter of icons. (pg. 249) Leo’s report was read and those who did not agree with it were spit on, beaten, or dismissed from the council. (pg. 247) On the third day a proposal was created and approved in favor of iconoclasm. (pg. 247) The previous teachings of Hieria were subjected as being right in which they stated that “images are essentially idols, icons of Christ either circumscribe his uncircumscribable divinity or split his divine and human natures, and images cannot convey the resurrected glory of saints”. (pg. 247) Although Leo had suggested that images be removed from reach in churches, the council had not done much to actually engage in iconoclasm. (pg. 250)
The representation of divinity was clearly defined in Christ in Majesty with Symbols of the Four Evangelists through its subject matter, technique, and style. Christ acts as the focal point, but the artist also used different subjects from the Old and New Testament to decorate the apse. Unlike the mosaics in the apse of Byzantine churches, the artist employed the technique of classical fresco painting. The artist also applied decoration to the figures with the hierarchy of scale, and through the geometric style in the drapery instead of maintaining a sense of realism.
The Hagia Sophia is a stunning, spherical-shaped building made of marble and gold (Doc. 4). Justinian built the Hagia Sophia, which means “Holy Wisdom” in Greek, after a church of the same name was destroyed in riots in Constantinople (outside information). Procopius, Justinian’s court historian, described the church as “suspended from heaven by the fabled golden chain” (Doc. 4). Undoubtedly, visitors to the Hagia Sophia are left breathless by its beauty (outside information). Other churches that Justinian built include the Church of St. Salvator in Chora and the Church of the Apostles (Doc. 5). Justinian’s churches were beautiful; however, they were created to be more than just a display. The churches caused people to feel a connection with God, which helped unify the empire under a single faith. The bonding of the Romans under one faith helped strengthen the entire empire. Moreover, the abundance of churches in Constantinople helped make the city the center of religious power (Doc. 5). Evidence of Justinian’s legacy can be found when one realizes that the Byzantine Empire’s revived culture influenced Orthodox Christianity, a major branch of modern
Themistocles contribution to the defence of Greece was more significant than any other Greek individual. To what extent do you agree?
Flood explains the origin of Islamic iconoclasm through a quote by K.A.C. Creswell stating, "the inherent temperamental dislike of Semitic races for representational art" and believes iconoclasm is contested among Muslims as well. The Hadith, which is the narrative of the Prophet's life forbids "all representations that have shadows (whose defacement is obligatory), and some schools of thought go so far as to liken artists to polytheists." Although the impact of iconoclasm depends on the time and place in which it occurred, the Hadith definitely helped to promote "the eschewal of figural imagery" and "the destruction or mutilation of existing figural imagery." In 696-697 figural imagery was repla...
The first clear instance where Christianity is seen in Constantine's life is during his campaign against Maxentius. In the spring of 311, when Constantine was marching to Rome to battle against Maxentius, he saw a vision in the sky, a bright cross along with the words "by this sign conquer." Later that night, he had a dream in which God told him to use that sign as a safeguard to use in all of his future battles. Constantine awoke and immediately ordered his troops to inscribe the chi-rho, the sign he saw a combination of the Greek letters chi and rho, onto their shields (Constantine Converts to Christianity 312). Some historians have deemed it more appropriate to consider Constantine a patron of Christianity at this point rather than a convert as it appears that he is using it as a means to conquer and attributes his success to it rather being convicted and committed to Jesus Christ as a true Christian should (Legitimization Under Constantine). Meanwhile, at the same time that Constantine is having holy visions and dreams, Maxentius sought guidance and confirmation from pagan oracles and found a prophecy declaring the "the enemy of the Romans would parish." Emboldened by this prophecy, he left the defensive position of Rome and met Constantine at Milvian Bridge. Constantine was victorious despite having an army about a third of the size of Maxentius'. It is said that Maxentius' army became confused and scattered during the battle. Maxentius was drive...
The Byzantine mosaic was an early Christian predecessor whereby it clear cuts the religious tales drawn from the bible. There was a combination of forces between the political and religious authority which gave the emperor power over the architecture and art of Byzantine Empire. The Roman Empire was collapsing due to the interruption by German tribes hence they were not able to teach manners and morals according to the artistic and cultural ways of the mosaics hence they were unable to determine art of the early Christianity while the art of Byzantine
Throughout Elizabeth Winthrop’s short story, “The Golden Darters,” are symbols of how Emily, the main character, is growing up. The most obvious symbols are Emily piercing her ears, her father’s table where he works on the flies, and the golden darters.
Most people appreciate their hair as the most valuable assets especially for women. However, there are so many problems related to this precious thing nowadays such as hair loss (alopecia), dandruffs and premature greying and balding. The researcher’s team headed by Professor Markus Nothen from University of Bonn and Dr. Roland Kruse from Dusseldorf University in 2005 discovered that the main cause of alocepia is hereditary factors which either because of high androgen receptor formed or variant receptor which develops as a result of genetic change. In addition according to Hoffman (2002), “The most common form of alopecia in men is believed to be due excessive activity of androgens on the scalp where the hairs become miniaturized and pigment production is stopped.” Hamilton (1951); Hoffman (2002); Price (2003); Severi et al., (2003) claimed that conversion towards more potent testosterone is due to elevation level of 5-alpha reductase lead to common baldness. For the genetically derived phenomenon, it supposed to be totally about the hereditary cause and the other exogenous factors will be excluded. However, there are also views from proponents saying that some natural food involves in solving these hair—related problems for example emblica officinalis or amla.
In the story of Beloved, Toni Morrison conveys many examples of symbolism to provide greater details about the connection between characters and their state of mind. Objects such as milk, colors such as red, and even characters such as Beloved play a crucial role in establishing a theme of self-forgiveness and rebirth, and give a more in depth description on the suffering and torture that the various characters endured throughout the novel.
Behind the elaborate fresco paintings and splendid architecture, Eastern Orthodox Church has played a significant role in the preservation of Christian tradition throughout history. Since the transfer of the imperial capitol of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, the Eastern Orthodox Christianity has evolved into a distinct branch of Christianity (Steeves). As Timothy Ware, the author of The Orthodox Church, suggests, major intellectual, cultural, and social developments that were taking place in a different region of the Roman Empire were not entirely consistent with the evolution of Western Christianity (Ware 8). These traditions and practices of the church of Constantinople were adopted by many and still provide the basic patterns and ethos of contemporary Orthodoxy. The Eastern Orthodox Church has adopted unique organizational features, beliefs, and traditions constituting itself as a unique branch of Christianity.
History plays a very important role in the development of art and architecture. Over time people, events, and religion, have contributed to the evolution of art. Christianity has become a very common and well established religion, however, in the past it was hidden and a few people would worship this religion secretly. Gradually, Christianity became a growing religion and it attracted many converts from different social statuses. Christian art was highly influenced by the Greco-Romans, but it was immensely impacted by the establishment of the Edict of Milan in the year 313 AD. The Edict of Milan was so significant that scholars divide Christian art into two time periods, time before and after the Edict of Milan of 313.
Early Christian and Byzantine art started after Jesusí death in the first century ranging and ending to the fourth century AD. The art produced during this period was secretive because Christianity was not a formal religion but as a cult; the Romans and rest of Europe persecuted Christians so the artist disguised their work with symbols and hints of Christian aspects. Christianity was the first cult to not involve rituals of sacrifice of animals and refused to worship an Emperor causing the Roman Empire to make Christianity illegal. Byzantine art excelled in the Justinian period in the east during 520-540 AD. The art was produced in Ravenna, Byzantine, Venice, Sicily, Greece, and Russia. The difference between Christian and Byzantine is that Christian was earth beyond realism and Byzantine was more spiritual than worldly style. This art period was sectioned off into three different periods. The first was persecution from the first to the third century. The second was due to Constantine making Christianity legal in the fourth century. The last period is known as New Christian style starting in the fifth century. Most of the art from this period was frescoes, mosaics, and architecture.
The Byzantine Empire tends to break it down into three stages. The time of the 3 AD - 8 AD is known as the Late Antique or Late Roman. The Middle Byzantine period begins around 565 AD after the death of the emperor Justinian; during this time around 610 AD we had the accession of the emperor Heraklios. Then in 717 AD we had the start of the Isaurian dynasty; and in 848 the end of Iconoclasm. It
What is ideology? How can it help us understand media? Use academic literature to support your argument.
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