3. Biological causes of higher life expectations.
Following the assumptions by Van Parijs, we could also question whether women's higher life expectation could be due to biological reasons. In order to introduce this topic, we can use Paula Casal's Love not war. On the chemistry of good and evil. She develops during her article the main biological reasons for different life expectations by sex.
The major biological cause for this difference is the fact that women are seen as biological primary care-takers. Consequently, women develop several hormones and behaviors that enhance their life expectation by means of being more productive for the collective group and also for the type of hormones developed by motherhood. Nevertheless, this primary
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care taker biological assumption is also the cause for the lower expectations on life for human females. The primary care-taker fact is, therefore, a double razor blade, which, allows women to have a longer life, but also gives lower life expectations for women. Due to this biological difference, females enjoy having a higher life expectation than males. Van Parijs affirms that institutions have to address natural differences as well as social injustices. Therefore, if the differences on life expectations is a natural fact, it should be also addressed by social institutions. Consequently, if the difference is a natural fact, it could only be reversed or neutralized by sharing the role of the primary care-taker until males developed the biological characteristics that would enhance their life expectation. But, does this difference represent a real injustice for males? Does this injustice affect males or females? 4.
Conclusions.
Does this difference between male and female life expectations represent an injustice? Does this higher life expectation produce and advantage for women?
Following Van Parijs' article, he does introduce two objections that question whether this difference in life expectation could be seen as an advantage for women. On one hand Van Parijs remarks that differences within the life expectations leads to “inequality in the amount of domestic elderly care work performed by the two genders”, on the other hand, he present the possible solution of outsourcing of erderly care, but also estates that such a solution is improbable to be implemented.
As we can see, the consequences of a longer life are not as positive as it may seem from scratch. Longer lives mean, for women, developing new duties towards the others, such as the duty to take care of grandchildren and husbands. Nevertheless, since men do enjoy a higher quality of life due to higher incomes, to have a higher life expectation would actually have positive consequences.
Therefore, we can conclude answering to the second question introduced in this last section. Nowadays, to have a higher life expectation does not necessarily mean an advantage for
women. This conclusion leads to to the answer to the first question; Does this difference represent an injustice? While the difference between male's and female's quality of life represents an issue for gender justice, since it does develop and construct a hierarchy between sexes, the fact that women have a higher life expectation does not represent an obstacle for gender equality. Primarily, the fact that women live longer lives does not represent an obstacle for gender equality, since it does devaluate the quality of men's life. Actually, the fact that women live longer has a positive impact on the lives of their elder husbands. On one hand, men, while being alive, do not run the risk of having a lower quality of life due to their gender, but due to natural facts. On the other hand, in a reverse context, women suffer a decline of the quality of their lives due to the genetic enhancement linked to gendered assumptions. Therefore, nowadays, higher life expectation does not represent an actual advantage for women, which, consequently, does not produce a gender inequality that affects men.
Yet, she questions how would a little girl understand that she would have to grow up to satisfy the societal expectations that she was supposed to be fit to nurture and care for babies, as that is a woman’s social expectations. Biologically, a woman’s strong estrogen could lead to this desire whereas a high testosterone will focus primarily less on this
All people are forced to see themselves as society has shaped them, both male and female. Although progress for gender impartiality has been made, it can still be said that societal maxims enforce the incorrect notion that women are inferior to men. In matters of economics, women are offered far fewer employment opportunities, and I believe that this can be validated by the fact that many women have been conditioned to "marry well and let him...
During the Industrial Revolution of the Victorian Era, life expectancy was so low due to the lack of sanitation, working conditions, and less medical knowledge that we have now. At the time, the average age people were dying was at 35 years old (Lambert). The age, however, varied depending on where one lived. Normally, people who lived in cities died at a younger age than people who live in rural areas. The class that one was in also greatly impacted a person’s life span. It mainly impacted poor working-class communities, because of the poor conditions that came with being a member of that class (Wilde).
The development of a new CBE scale is justifiable based on the explanation of the relationship among antecedents, construct and consequences under an unique theoretical framework. In doing so, this study resulted in strong empirical evidence of the Expectancy Theory (ET) framework for explaining consumer brand engagement self-selected brands. The sequence of effort (cognitive, behavior and emotional), performance (consumer brand engagement) and outcomes (BRR & CBE-O) chain of effects was large and significant. The effort-performance (E-P) causal relation was operationalized by the effort based dimensions of CBE, namely Cognitive, Behavioral and Emotional. The performance-outcome (P-O) causal relation was operationalized by the consumer brand engagement concept, and instrumentality was operationalized as the Brand Related Rewards (BRR) to consumer brand engagement outcomes (CBE-O). It was demonstrated that the brand engagement dimensions predict expected Brand Related Rewards (BRR), which in turn predicts consumer brand engagement outcomes (CBE-O). As a result, hypothesis H3a and H3b were supported. Additionally, the measurements of these constructs are mostly invariant (or partially invariant), with adequate parameter stability.
...socially directed hormonal instructions which specify that females will want to have children and will therefore find themselves relatively helpless and dependent on males for support and protection. The schema claims that males are innately aggressive and competitive and therefore will dominate over females. The social hegemony of this ideology ensures that we are all raised to practice gender roles which will confirm this vision of the nature of the sexes. Fortunately, our training to gender roles is neither complete nor uniform. As a result, it is possible to point to multitudinous exceptions to, and variations on, these themes. Biological evidence is equivocal about the source of gender roles; psychological androgyny is a widely accepted concept. It seems most likely that gender roles are the result of systematic power imbalances based on gender discrimination.9
Introduction The topic of gender differences must understandably be approached with caution in our modern world. Emotionally charged and fraught with ideas about political correctness, gender can be a difficult subject to address, particularly when discussed in correlation to behavior and social behavior. Throughout history, many people have strove to understand what makes men and women different. Until the modern era, this topic was generally left up to religious leaders and philosophers to discuss. However, with the acquisition of more specialized medical knowledge of human physiology and the advent of anthropology, we now know a great deal more about gender differences than at any other point in history.
Women, however, have had the very different role of the "universal caretaker." This translates into the woman being responsible for all that is within the privat...
Biological factors (sex) and gender are correlated, but gender may or may not be caused by biological factors. Cherlin proposes four models of how gender is created: the biosocial model, the socialization model, the interactionist model and the patriarchic model. Only the first model, the “biosocial” model, allows for heredity and biological factors to play a role in determining gender. This model is based on the idea that biologically, men and women are predisposed to act a certain way “on average,” but also, that social factors play a strong role in determining whether biological tendencies prevail. According to this theory, biological differences account for only about a quarter of behavioral gender differences while social influences account for the remaining portion. Socialized traits are stronger than biological traits, and can eliminate biological traits, but biological tendencies are still important because it is a challenge for socialized traits to subdue biological traits. A good example of this is outlined in Ke...
Berger, K. S. (2010). Invitation to The Life Span (Second Edition). Unite State of America: Worth Publishers.
InHumanExperiment, a blog spot about humans’ views toward life extension, explained how life extension is no doubt a desirable thing. They get to spend more time living a happy life by “traveling, spending more time with family, and just experiencing life in general” (“How Do People Feel About Life Extension?”). Life extension also helps the decline in mortality caused my curable sickness and diseases. Also according to InHumanExperiment, “the most commonly identified benefit was an increase in collective human wisdom and knowledge. The fact that important people such as doctors, scientists, etc. would be around for longer was also seen as a good thing” (“How Do People Feel about Life Extension?”). This proves that there would be more researches done to prevent different diseases. Even though that may be all true, living longer also means individuals are more likely to be susceptible to diseases due to old age and according to Dina Fine, an associate editor for Scientific American, life extension can also affect an individual directly because people with a sickness or a disease now, might live longer with the particular pain rather than dying naturally (Fine,
Human life is full of meaning. As humans, we assign value to many things. However, what happens when we assign a specific value to a human life? This is the issue being presented in the article, “What is a Life Worth,” by Amanda Ripley. The government is determining a monetary value to a human life, and it does not appeal to the masses. There are many problems with the cold calculation, and most people cannot see the other side of the numbers. The economic value of a human life is calculated based on the income the person was receiving, but when the check is given to a loved one of a small amount, the compensation is misinterpreted as an overall value of the human life. The true value of a human life should not be combined with the monetary value that is determined by the government, or the value of life would be worth very little.
On the other hand, there is no denying the huge impact that economic status has on one's life expectancy. In this case, I have concerns about the notion that race and socioeconomic status interact with each other to cause a lesser life
It is not in men’s power to prolong their own lives; but it is for
It has been well documented that women in general have a longer lifespan than men. In the past the reason was believed to be that women live a healthier lifestyle than men; I believe this is true to a point. Women don’t tend to work in as hazardous of environments and historically they tend not to smoke as much. Based on some research I have seen, a man or women’s lifestyle doesn’t sum up the total life expectancy of the individual. For the most part I believe the availability of modern medicine and the education level of the person will tie directly into the results. Basically if the person is moderately educated and has access to the modern medicine and actually uses it they can expect to extend their life. These are not the only factors of this though; genetics can obviously play a large role in the life expectancy of a person as well. People appear to be understanding this more and are moving to a preemptive strike when it comes to these types of issues. The fact that women have out lived men over the years may be taking a turn. Mortality rates of women are on the rise from lung...
In a family, women hold most of the commitment in keeping it together and the men are known to be the budgetary suppliers of the family. Women fill the role of the mother, lover, nurturer, the cook, and the cleaner. This is a staggering measure of work that she should go up against, yet over the long haul the male assumes the acknowledgment in his tendency of supporting the whole family. Since we have these desires of women and men, we disparage the capacity to attempt new things. For instance, if a woman goes out to land a position in a work field, she will be isolated against due to her sex. Furthermore, it is likewise accepted that men won't deal with the family unit duties as a women. With this a gender inequality in the family life, women and men are dealt with contrastingly past their home. Women are out of the house doing her piece of the shopping and men are out working completing things and getting paid for it. It is this part of getting paid for work that is over looked in the female point of view. Women do not get paid to hold the obligation of the family household foundation; they get the affirmation that she is doing what is instructed of her. This is gender inequality disparity that influences for the most part the women. This underestimation of woman in the workforce, suggests to society that she is strange and is dealt with so