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Pathophysiology of diabetes essay
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Pathophysiology of diabetes essay
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There are numerous metabolic diseases that affect people all around the world. One of the most common metabolic diseases is diabetes which involves carbohydrate metabolism. Carbohydrate metabolism starts with digestion in the small intestine where simple carbohydrates are absorbed into the blood stream (1). Blood sugar (glucose) concentrations are managed by three hormones: insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine. When glucose concentrations in the blood become elevated, insulin is secreted by the pancreas. Insulin stimulates the transfer of glucose into the cells, especially in the liver and muscle tissue, although other organs are also able to process glucose (2).
In the liver and muscles, glycogen is produced from glucose by glycogenesis. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles glucose levels are low. When blood glucose levels are low, epinephrine and glucagon are secreted stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis). If there is an immediate need for energy upon glucose entering the cell, then glycoysis usually takes place. The end products of glycolysis are pyruvic acid and ATP. Since glycolysis releases small amounts ATP, further reactions continue to convert pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA and then citric acid in the citric acid cycle. The majority of the ATP is made from oxidations in the citric acid cycle in connection with the electron transport chain (3). This is how normal glucose metabolism takes place (figure-1).
Insulin is a major hormone controlling functions of glucose metabolism. It activates insulin receptor tyrosine kinase which phosphorylates and recruits different proteins from the IRS family of proteins (4). Once phosphorylated these proteins display binding sites for numerous signaling pat...
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...tochondrial lipid uptake (6). Therefore, evidence that lipid oxidation decreases throughout the body in people with obesity and insulin resistance as a result of impaired mitochondrial plasticity (7). It still remains unknown if insulin has direct and rapid effects on mitochondrial function. If insulin is responsible, the defects caused by IR might reflect deregulation of the lipid‑induced PPAR–PGC1 interaction after prolonged hyperlipidemia (8). This in effect leads to reduced lipid uptake into mitochondria in order to balance for lower mitochondrial content and increased lipids concentrations. As a result of this reduced lipid uptake, lipid induced uncoupling of the respiratory chain takes place, there is reduced oxidation of glycolytic substrates, which will detach fatty acid oxidation rates from citric acid cycle rates, resulting in metabolic distortion (7).
Our body obtains the energy by digesting the carbohydrates into glucose. Volumes of glucose are required by the body to create ATP. ATP is short for 'Adenosine Triphosphate ' and is an energy carrier. When we consume too many carbohydrates our body produces a lot of glucose and as a result blood glucose levels rise and sometimes they may rise over the normal range of blood glucose concentration. To bring it back within the healthy range, the homeostatic system of blood glucose regulation is used. The blood flows through the pancreas where the beta cells, receptors, detect the high blood glucose level. To counteract this stimuli beta cells alert the control centre, which are also the beta cells located in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. The secretion of insulin has to be done quickly but can only be carried out when insulin gene is switched on. Turning on the insulin gene switch can take 30 minutes to an hour therefore, the production of insulin by beta cells are done in advance and are packaged in vesicles right until blood glucose rises. Glucose comes into the beta cell to trigger the vesicle that contains the insulin to move towards the plasma membrane and fuse. This releases the insulin into the bloodstream where they are distributed throughout the body and only affect specific target cells. The receptor, a protein, on the target cell’s plasma membrane recognises and connects
Nutritionism and Today’s Diet Nutritionism is the ideology that the nutritional value of a food is the sum of all its individual nutrients, vitamins, and other components. In the book, “In Defense of Food” by Michael Pollan, he critiques scientists and government recommendations about their nutritional advice. Pollan presents a strong case pointing out the many flaws and problems that have risen over the years of following scientific studies and government related warnings on the proper amount of nutrients needed for a healthy diet. Pollan’s main point is introducing science into our food system has had more of a negative impact than a positive one, we should go back to eating more of a traditional diet. I believe food science has given us
The Structure and Function of Carbohydrates Large biological molecules are called macromolecules, there are giant molecules (polymers) made up of repeating units (monomers). Carbohydrates are one of the main classes of biological molecules. Macromolecule units (monomers) are joined together by condensation reactions and hydrolysis reactions split macromolecules down into their individual units. Carbohydrates are molecules that contain elements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates have a 2:1 hydrogen to oxygen ratio, there are twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms (the same proportion as in water).
Provide muscle energy, fuel for the nerve system, the fat metabolism and protect the protein to been used as energy
In order for the body to maintain homeostatic levels of energy, blood glucose regulation is essential. Glucose is one of the body’s principal fuels. It is an energy-rich monosaccharide sugar that is broken down in our cells to produce adenosine triphosphate. In the small intestine, glucose is absorbed into the blood and travels to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. The hepatocytes absorb much of the glucose and convert it into glycogen, an insoluble polymer of glucose. Glycogen, which is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles, can easily be reconverted into glucose when blood-glucose levels fall. All of the body’s cells need to make energy but most can use other fuels such as lipids. Neurons; however, rely almost exclusively on glucose for their energy. This is why the maintenance of blood-glucose levels is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system.
Insulin represents one of the most important hormones in the body for its involvement in control and regulation of blood glucose in humans and in most vertebrates. Insulin acts on cells by stimulating glucose, protein and lipid metabolism, RNA and DNA synthesis via modification of enzymes activities and their transport system. Insulin continues by executing acts on cellular levels, initiated by its binding to plasma membrane receptors. These membrane receptors are presents on mammalian tissues with different concentration levels, varying between 40 receptors on circulating erythrocytes to receptors of approximately 200,000 on adipocytes and hepatocytes. Insulin receptors activation results in internal cellular mechanisms directly affecting glucose uptake. When an insulin control mechanism fails, the occurring result is diabetes mellitus condition. The binding of Insulin to extracellular part of its receptors (alpha subunits) leads to conformation changes, necessary for activation of kinase domains existing in the intracellular site of beta subunits. Clinically there are evidences illuminating insulin exogenous and endogenous inability to increase glucose uptake and utilization. This inability is term insulin resistance, it occurs due to clusterization of cardiovascular metabolic abnormalities resulting in insulin resistance syndrome/metabolic syndrome, which can leads to development of type 2 diabetes and other well-known illnesses.
Previous studies have shown that there has been temporary insulin resistance due to the physiological stress associated with muscle damage. However, the molecular mechanisms by which physiological stress induces insulin resistance is not known. The many effects that insulin has on metabolism and cellular growth begin when insulin binds to its receptor at the cell membrane. The insulin signals from the insulin receptor are transmitted through the insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1. The phosphorylation (creation of a phosphate derivative of an organic molecule) of IRS-1 has been linked to signal transduction from the insulin receptor to PI 3-kinase.
What are carbohydrates? What role do they play in our bodies? The role of carbohydrates in our bodies is to provide energy, as they are the body’s main source of fuel. These biochemicals are needed for physical activity, brain function and to operate the organs. Carbohydrates can be found in dairy, fruits, grains, and in starchy vegetables. Complex carbohydrates are foods which contain vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Oat meal, brown rice, quinoa, potatoes, beans, peas, whole grains and other starchy vegetables are good examples of complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are a major source of energy for the body and can be found in fruits, fruit juices, and dairy products. While both kinds of carbohydrates use glucose as a source,
Understanding the complexity of the molecular and biochemical basis of impairment of insulin, along with microvascular disease in diabetes mellitus is accomplished in a method using conceptualization where taking into account the interactions, in the instance of insulin dysfunction and resistance, the interconnections, and correlations between glucose, insulin signaling, with associated molecules and substrates that regulate various tissues of metabolic Importance are key approaches in understanding such pathways. With the various molecules involved, participating in both normal, and dysfunctional pathways and mechanisms, the intracellular processing of the signal was provided by the inducer, in that of insulin where it would bind to the insulin receptor substrate, IRS. Other molecules, consisting of PK13, PKB, and PKC along with their derivatives and isotopes, were of also great importance due to the strong evidence of support that the dysfunction of these proteins in their homeostatic form contributed to the overall process of insulin resistance.
Nutritionism is an ideology that believes that the nutrients in foods are the key to understanding them. Nutritionism believers are so focused on the nutrients that food contains that they forget about all other aspects of food. The problem is that consumers rely on packaging to tell them what nutrients a food provides, since nutrients cannot be obviously seen, and they rely on science to tell us what nutrients are good and which are “evil”.
Blood glucose levels are the measurement of glucose in an individual’s blood. This is important because glucose is the body’s main source of fuel and the brains only source of fuel. Without energy from glucose the cells would die. Glucose homeostasis is primarily controlled in the liver, muscle, and fat where it stored as glycogen. The pancreas is also a significant organ that deals with glucose. The pancreas helps regulate blood glucose levels. Alpha-islet and beta-islet pancreatic cells measure blood glucose levels and they also regulate hormone release. Alpha cells produce glucagon and beta cells produce insulin. The body releases insulin in response to elevated blood glucose levels to allow the glucose inside of cells and
The purpose of this study, Pancreatic Mitochondrial Complex I Exhibits Aberrant Hyperactivity in Diabetes, is to establish that an increase of the stimuli in the pancreatic mitochondrial Complex I leads to diabetes. Increasing the stimuli of Complex I, subsequently raises the levels of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. Complex I, also known as NADH, is the first step of the respiratory electron transport chain which use protons to pump proteins creating most of the energy that helps power cells. This complex uses molecules to create an electrochemical gradient in our mitochondria, which is powered by the production of NADH by breaking down food molecules, helping to power ATP Synthase. Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease in which the body’s ability to use energy produced by food intake is affected, causing an increased level of blood sugar. Hyperglycemia glucotoxicity is high blood sugar, which damages the structure and function of beta cells and target tissues of insulin, causing a low level of hormone secretion and insulin resistance.
Looking at today's habits, the functioning of our bodies indicates that everything is upside down. We start the day late, dress in a frenzy and fuel our bodies with a cup of sweetened coffee accompanied by a sugary snack to which our blood sugar counter starts to fail from skyrocketing levels. The blood sugar increase is still equal to insulin but now with our condition it's a truckload of insulin. Insulin's task is to escort the sugar in the blood to muscle cells, but since these cells have their own limits they do not want or need any more sugar than what is necessary. They actually become rude and resist taking that sugar from the blood. According to our biochemical pathway, the insulin now has no other choice than to take its sugar load to another location. It is an adventure story that doesn't bode well as it ends up in the fat cells. Our fat cells welcome the sugar, which is often under constant attack due to our high carbohydrate diets. Ev...
The metabolic process to manage blood glucose levels starts with the consumption of food and the glucose entering the bloodstream. Once the level of glucose in the bloodstream is detected, the pancreas responds by releasing insulin into the bloodstream which allows the glucose to be accepted into the body cells. Insulin also allows excess glucose to be stored in the liver where it is turned into glycogen. If the blood
If you frequent health forums or fitness blogs, you'll have read the word “macros” before. The word is short for macronutrients. That leads to the question, “what are macronutrients?”