Can the Source of Aggression be Found in the Brain?
In Holland, male members of a certain family were found to be prone to violent outbursts; one male, criticized by his employer, attempted to run him over with a car - another raped his sister and was sent to a mental hospital - a third coerced his sister into undressing by threatening her with a knife. Such men display retarded motor development, difficulties in task planning, and awkward sexual behavior. (1). Recently, researchers claimed to have found the basis of such aggressive behavior to genetic sources - specifically, a deficiency in the MAOA gene of these males (2).
In Finland, studies were conducted on males who also displayed uncontrollable behavior, and the findings demonstrated that the men possessed a neurotransmitter substance deficiency, particularly in the messenger serotonin (3). This lack of serotonin has been linked to aggressive behavior: some violent prone individuals did not effectively break down these substances
All around the globe, people have attempted to find an organic, genetic basis for aggressive behavior. Several hormones and neurotransmitters, such as testosterone and seretonin, have been implicated in the "aggression quest", as well as specific localities of the human brain. My paper will serve to suggest that although many findings have shown impressive results regarding possible biological causes of violent behavior, we still do not have sufficient means to understand the neuroanatomical or biochemical basis of aggression.
Neurotransmitters have been suggested as a significant cause of aggressive behavior. Hans Brunner, a geneticist at the University Hospital in Nijmegen, has found that the violent male members of the Dutch family mentioned earlier in this paper, lacked a gene that produces monoamine oxidase-a (MAOA) (4). MAOA is an enzyme that breaks down significant transmitters in the brain. If the MAOA does not break down these transmitters - specifically, serotonin - then buildup of serotonin will occur and could cause a person to act violently (3).
However, it is interesting how contradictory the finding is to several other claims. Studies have shown that serotonin, in normal levels, exerts a calming, inhibitory effect on neuronal firing (5) and that, in low levels of serotonin, aggressive and impulse behaviors increase (6).This contradicts the previous claim that a built-up, or high levels of serotonin caused by the MAOA mutation, causes violent behavior.
Furthermore, the claim regarding the specificity of serotonin to aggression can be analogous to a small fish in a big pond.
Brunner and his colleagues, and upon the discovery of a particular genetic defect in male members of a large Dutch family. In this large Dutch kindred, Brunner et al. (1993) identified a novel form of X-linked nondysmorphic mild mental retardation, and he found that all of the male family members with this defect reacted aggressively when angry, fearful, and frustrated. All the affected males in the family showed characteristic abnormal behavior, in particular aggressive, and sometimes violent behavior. These males in the family displayed mild impairment of cognitive functions and some types of abnormal impulsive behavior which includes arson, attempted rape, and exhibitionism. Even attempted suicide was reported in a single case. The defect discovered was later found to be a mutation in the gene that codes for monoamine oxidase A (MAOA gene). Brunner showed that in the affected males there was a mutation in the gene for the enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAOA). The enzyme deactivates the hormones and neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine, more commonly known as noradrenaline and adrenaline. At this time, Brunner said that an "MAO-A deficiency is associated with a recognizable behavioral phenotype that included disturbed regulation of impulsive aggression. The transmission pattern of Brunner syndrome in the families reported was consistent with X-linked recessive inheritance. A man with Brunner syndrome is what expert psychiatrists refer to as “a bad guy.”
Conspiracy theories have gained a greater discourse in the twenty-first century. Fictional narratives, Hollywood blockbusters, television series and documentaries, and many other pop culture mediums have used conspiracies to spin tales and capture an audience. In this essay I would like to argue that the dominant narrative of a historical event exists because the elite have the power to manipulate and transform it. The group in power values a hegemonic society, perpetuating certain myths in order to create social cohesion within a nation. As a result, conspiracy theories challenge the dominant narrative. This challenge is how subscribers use conspiracy to attempt agency over the elite. I will use the sinking of the Titanic and Don DeLilo’s novel, Libra, to demonstrate how the elite fight for narrative control and how a close reading of these narratives is necessary to evaluate conspiracy theories.
United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2014). About the law. Retrieved from http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/rights/
Some psychologist believe that if a serial killer displays or kills his victims in such a way then it qualifies as fulfilling as sexual desire. These killers are usually diagnosed with a mental disorder referred to as sexual sadism. Psychologists refer to serial killers who kill in this manner as sexual sadist. A sexual sadist enjoys the ‘suffering or embarrassment of others to the point of arousal’ (Serial Killers and Sexual Sadism). Sociologists believe that a serial killer needs to “fulfil a sexual desire by turning a fantasy into a controllable reality” (Serial Killers: Nature vs. Nurture). Sadist crave the dominance and control over their victims because they feel as if they cannot control other aspects of their life. Another biological factor derives within the DNA of the person. Many killers have the “MAO-A gene (monoamine oxidase A). This gene, which has been the target of considerable research, is also known as the "warrior gene" because it regulates serotonin in the brain. Serotonin affects your mood — think Prozac — and many scientists believe that if you have a certain version of the warrior gene, your brain won't respond to the calming effects of serotonin (A Neuroscientist Uncovers a Dark Secret).” With this gene psychologist and scientist alike believe that this can foretell a serial killer before he becomes a serial
A majority of these individuals are linked through commonalities of their childhood as well as their personality traits and behaviors. The serial murderer’s personality is an intricate recipe of biological, environmental and social circumstances. Though early abuse can cause feelings of aggression and delinquency, childhood experiences alone cannot be to blame. Many people are abused early on as children, and never become killers. Similarly, biological issues, such as brain abnormalities, as we as certain personality disorders would not individually create a murderer. Rather, a distinctive combination of psychological issues, impairments in the brain, and personality disorders help mold a brutal serial killer. Killers cannot be simply born into this world, but under the right circumstances, they will be created.
Lischke, A., Gamer, M., Berger, C., Grossmann, A., Hauenstein, K., Heinrichs, M., . . . Domes, G. (2012). Oxytocin increases amygdala reactivity to threatening scenes in females. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(9), 1431-1438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.01.011
As Lawrence Perbal discussed in his article, "The Warrior Gene' and the Mãori People: The Responsibility of the Geneticists", found in the journal Bioethics: Volume 27 Number 7, "many studies have shown a statistical (positive correlation) or causal relationship between low levels of MAOA and aggressive behavior, mental retardation, lack of self-control, addiction, and risk taking behaviors". In a TED Talk done by Jim Fallon, he goes on to explain how those with this monoamine oxidase A gene, have an overflow of serotonin in youth. This may boggle the mind because serotonin has to do with feelings of joy or happiness. However, because of this overdose of serotonin at a young age, these people become tolerant of the serotonin and it no longer has the outcomes it is intended to have (Fallon). As with anything, once tolerant, the ability of serotonin to produce feelings of pleasantry is diminished greatly. Consequently, without the capability of having these pleasing feelings it causes those particular individuals to be more likely to having aggressive outbreaks of brutality and outrage. Jim Fallon also makes a countering point in his Ted Talk, that without a traumatizing event, these genes do not create a criminal. He argues that without a mortifying occurrence, people will live "normal" lives free of
1. Lipson, Peter. "What Patient Dont Know about Obama Care." Forbes Magazine21 Dec. 2013: 1-2. Web
Gender inequality specifies to unequal treatment or approach of individuals based on their gender. It occurs from differences in socially constructed gender roles as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences. In 2006, the World Economic Forum introduced The Global Gender Gap Index. It is a framework that captures the magnitude and capacity of gender-based disparities and tracking their progress. The index measures national gender gaps on political, economic, education and health based criteria, and provides country rankings that allow for effective comparisons across regions and income groups, over time. The rankings are mainly designed to create a greater awareness among a global audience of the challenges posed by gender gaps and the opportunities created by reducing them.
Raine states: “ So, in the 1950s, little toddlers were playing outside, putting their fingers in dirt, putting their fingers in their mouths and absorbing the lead. Twenty years later, they became the next generation of violent criminal offenders because violence peaks at about 19 or 20. Then what happens is in the 1990s violence begins to come down, as it's been doing. What's partly explaining that? The reduction in lead in the environment (Raine, NPR).” This shows a biological connection to serial killer behavior. Temporal lobe or amygdala damage can show signs of psychopathy, which can lead to serial killer behavior (Kiehl, Bates, Laurens, Hare, & Liddle, 2006). Violent behavior has also been linked to deficiency in serotonin and high level of testosterone. Growing up in an unhealthy environment is also common in most serial killers. Sexual abuse, physical abuse, and mental abuse in a childhood home breeds serial killers. If someone grows up witnessing violence, it ingrains in their minds that violent behavior is okay. Before a serial killer commits a crime, they may be quiet, reserved, and keep to himself. In this stage, they are usually going on with their regular lifestyle. After a crime, they may taunt the media/police with notes and clues, as well as go on a killing spree. This is because some killers become obsessed with the urge to kill. Some may go as far as contacting the victim’s family. A fantasy is an elaborate
One of the most researched topics in the history of psychology is aggression. One goal of social scientists has been to define aggression. Some believe that aggression is biologically preprogrammed, others look toward situational factors and this study suggests that aggression is learned. This study was conducted by Albert Bandura and his associates in 1961 at Stanford University. The researchers proposed that the children be exposed to adult models with either aggressive or nonaggressive ways, they would then be tested without the models present to determine if they would imitate that aggression they observed in the adult.
Darity William A. Inequality, Gender." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 624-627. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec. 2013.
It is also crucial to consider the genetic makeup of these killers when trying to decipher their motives. New research shows a potential link between a strand of genes and aggression and violence (Bradley-Hagerty). The MAO-A gene or (monoamine oxidase A) has been researched extensively. The gene is often referred to as the “warrior gene” (Bradley-Hagerty). The function of this gene is to regulate serotonin in the brain. However, there are different variations of the gene, one of which is believed to prevent the brain from feeling the relaxing effects of the serotonin (Bradley- Hagerty). Without these calming effects, the person with this version of the gene is genetically predisposed to fits of rage; fits of rage that could potentially lead to murder over and over again.
...dgkinson C, Raymont V, Ferrier C, et al. Prefrontal cortex lesions and MAO-A modulate aggression in penetrating traumatic brain injury. Neurology. 76(12):1038-45 (2011).Van Erp AM, Miczek KA. Aggressive behavior, increased accumbal dopamine, and decreased cortical serotonin in rats. Journal of Neuroscience. 20(24):9320-5(2000).Vrontou E, Nilsen SP, Demir E, Kravitz EA, Dickson BJ. fruitless regulates aggression and dominance in Drosophila. Nature Neuroscience 9, 1469 - 1471 (2006).)
During the twentieth century, Ireland was suffering through a time of economic hardship. “Economic growth was stagnant, unemployment was at a historic high and exceeded anywhere in the EU, except possibly Spain, and the state was one of the most indebted in the world” . Irish men and women who had received a formal education had immigrated to other nations due to the unavailability of jobs at home. This left Ireland in a state of further economic downfall, and the lack of skilled workers left Ireland stuck. The 1990’s were a turning point for Ireland. A rise in industry within the nation, as well as an increase in exports, led Ireland to become the “shining nation” in Europe. It became internationally linked with one of the biggest power nations, the United States, and international trade became Ireland’s new source for a booming economy. This brought the rise of what was known as the Celtic Tiger in Ireland.