Explain the biochemistry behind the Citrate Utilization test – how does it work?
1) Describe the Kirby – Bauer test. What are bactericidal vs bacteriostatic, zone of inhibition, MIC, resistance breakpoint vs susceptibility breakpoint? The Kirby-Bauer test uses antibiotic-containing disks to test whether a specific bacterium is susceptible or resistant to specific antibiotics. Bactericidal are drugs that kill the organism. Bacteriostatic are drugs that stops the bacteria from diverging, but it does not kill the bacteria. Zone of inhibition is a clear zone that occurs when a bacterium is susceptible to the antibiotic. The zone of inhibition will appear around the disk where the fixation is sufficiently high to stop the development and the junction
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Blood typing works by detecting the presence and absence of A and/or B antigens on the surface of the red blood cells. An individual with type A has an A antigen, and a person with type B has a B antigen. People with type AB had both antigens and people with type O does not have the antigens. It is also used to determine Rh factor with anti- D antiserum. ABO blood typing is ascertained by adding a patient’s blood separately to an anti-A and anti-B antiserum and observe any signs of agglutination. Agglutination is happening to provide the reaction of the test. Agglutination with anti-A antiserum indicates the presence of A-antigen and type A blood. It goes for the same for the others, but different factors. Blood typing works because it determines a person’s blood type. It is important for the health care providers to know an individual's blood type on the grounds that a person has a blood transfusion or transplant. This is because not all blood types are compatible with each other. The blood type that is considered a “universal donor” is type O negative because there are no proteins (A and B antigens) on the red blood cells, which means anyone can receive the blood without suffering any rejections. The blood typing that is called the “universal recipient” is type AB blood because the immune system of a person with AB blood will accept blood from all possible donors, whether they have O, A, B, or AB
I identified the genus and species of an unknown bacterial culture, #16, and I applied the following knowledge of morphologic, cultural and metabolic characteristics of the unknown microorganism according to the laboratory manual as well as my class notes and power point print outs. I was given an incubated agar slant labeled #16 and a rack of different tests to either examine or perform myself; the tests are as follows: Gram Stain; Nutrient Gelatin Test; Carbohydrate Fermentation; Dextrose, Lactose and Sucrose; IMVIC tests; Citrate, Indole, Mythel-Red and Vogues Proskauer test; as well as a Urease and TSI Test.
One bacterium was gram negative. It underwent four different tests. These tests were the EMB test (Eosin Mehylene Blue), the Sulfur Indole Motility (SIM) test, the Urease test, and the Simmon’s Citrate Utilization test. The EMB test checks for a bacteria’s ability to ferment lactose. This test is accomplished by placing the bacteria on Eosin Methylene Blue agar. The agar is selective for gram negative bacteria and those bacteria that can ferment lactose will have colored growth, usually a metallic green sheen.
After the end of the experiment, the unknown 10 sample was Staphylococcus epidermidis. Come to this conclusion by first beginning with a Gram Stain test. By doing this test it would be easier to determine which route to take on the man-made flow chart. Gram positive and gram negative bacteria have a set of different tests to help determine the unknown bacterium. Based on the different tests that were conducted in lab during the semester, it was determined that the blood agar, MSA, and catalase tests are used for gram positive bacteria while Macconkey, EMB, TSI, and citrate tests are used for gram negative bacteria.
○ ABO incompatibility. People with an O blood type have antibodies that can attack blood cells in type A or B blood. If a mother 's blood type is O and her baby 's blood type is A or B, her antibodies may destroy the baby 's red blood cells and cause hemolytic disease.
The resistance to many antibiotics is a well-known property of bacterial biofilms. Biofilms are dense...
For UTI, cephalexin is an effective antibiotic. It interferes with the bacteria's ability to build a cell wall by killing and preventing the growth of bacterial cells. It stops the bacteria from forming a cell wall around each cell, which is used to protect the bacteria from the outside environment, and helps keep the contents inside the cell safe. Without a cell wall, the bacteria would be incapable of survival (Medicine Cabinet, 2016). Cephalexin is not only effective, but also very safe due to the amount of dosage and its longevity.
Although blood transfusions had been used before the First World War, many were not successful due to lack of knowledge in this type of treatments. World War I pushed the development of blood transfusions, allowing them to be safer. Before the war in the 17th century, blood transfusions often occurred with the use of animal blood, a practice that did not achieve desired results. These transfusions often times came from sheep, and although they were sometimes successful, it was discovered that any large amounts of transfusions would cause death. Coming to the conclusion that animal blood transfusions did not save lives, scientists looked to humans for human to human transfusions. Many of these attempted transfusions were met with failure but in 1818, Dr. James Blundell accomplished the first successful human blood transfusion; four ounces of blood were transferred to the patient from her husband. From that moment on, doctors began to learn even more about blood transfusions and how to do them properly. By 1901, the four human blood groups were discovered by Karl Landsteiner; with less differences in the bloods transfused together, coagulation and clumping amounts decreased. This benefited many lives in that toxic reactions to the wrong types of blood did not occu...
There are four different types of blood; A, B, AB, and O. This is called the ABO blood typing system. All four different types of blood serve the same purpose of transporting nutrients and oxygen throughout the human body. But what makes them different? Blood typing is based on the presence or absence of A and B cell antigens which trigger antibodies. Each kind of blood has it’s own antibody or immunoglobulin, which are proteins produced by the immune system to help stop intruders from invading your body. Therefore,
Fischbach, Frances, A Manual of Laboratory & Diagnostic Tests, 4th ed., J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia
Type of Test and testing procedure: An ABG is usually acquired through withdrawal of arterial blood. Babies can be tested using whole blood through capillary heel sticks. An ABG is usually collected from the radial artery. Before an ABG can be preformed, a circulation test must be preformed to protect the hand’s collateral blood flow.
There were five test solutions used in this experiment, water being the control, which were mixed with a yeast solution to cause fermentation. A 1ml pipetman was used to measure 1 ml of each of the test solutions and placed them in separated test tubes. The 1 ml pipetman was then used to take 1ml of the yeast solution, and placed 1ml of yeast into the five test tubes all containing 1 ml of the test solutions. A 1ml graduated pipette was placed separately in each of the test tubes and extracted 1ml of the solutions into it. Once the mixture was in the pipette, someone from the group placed a piece of parafilm securely on the open end of the pipette and upon completion removed the top part of the graduated pipette.
Blood types, agglutination, carbohydrates, antigens and antibodies are all used to classify blood in health situations. There are four different types of blood types; type A, type B, type AB, and type O blood. Each of these blood types have specific antigen markers used for identification purposes, except type O, which contains no antigens. They also include antibodies that attack foreign invaders, except type AB, which contains no antibodies. The monosaccharide of each blood cell contains N-acetylglucosamine, galactose, and fructose. Type A, type B, and type AB has additional monosaccharides that differentiates itself from other blood types. Blood types can be determined by using the slide test method or test tube method, in which medical practitioners add antiserums and look for agglutination.
On the agarose plate, there should be a visible chalky white line. This line can vary depending on how the unknown sample interacted with the purified antibodies of the known. If there is a clean semicircular line that has no delineations at any of the wells then that means the unknown antibodies acted as an antigen. The smooth line tells us that all the antibodies interacted with the antigen equally and they would all be from the same species; this hopefully would not be the case. If the white chalky line is not smooth and extends more towards the human antibody wells, this means the unknown was a stronger antigen to the human antibodies than the rabbit antibodies making it not human blood at the scene. If the line is extended more at the rabbit antibodies or angles towards them, this signifies greater rabbit antibody interaction. This shows that the blood from the scene would not be rabbit blood because it caused the antibodies to be recognized as an antigen to the rabbit’s antibodies. These antibodies of the two species would then be classified as xenogeneic because the rabbit or human antibodies acted as an antigen to either of the known samples. Rabbit and human are not close in species, so that is why xenogeneicity can be concluded if these were the results.
As mentioned earlier, although blood transfusions have become much safer, they still present some risks. One such risk is due to the inability to screen for every possible disease. Some diseases or infections are not visible at the time of screening. Dr. Peter Carolan, the senior officer of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, agrees that there is no way we can screen for every possible disease or infections due to the fact that diseases mutate and evolve over time (Transfusion Medicine, 2006).
There are eight possible types , A+, A-,B+, B-,AB+,AB,-O+,and O- .Blood type O negative has long been considered a universal donor as it can donate to all blood group, either +ve or -ve.