Apoptosis: A process where when a cell receives a specific signal, is damaged, or is stressed a cell becomes programmed to die which causes the cell to decrease in size and is attacked by macrophages causing it to break into smaller pieces.
Autonomous Specification: A process by which a cell can become specialized during embryonic development without receiving signals from external sources.
Caspases: A family of enzymes that are proteases that are important for apoptosis and inflammation in cells.
Cell Adhesion: When transmembrane glycoproteins mediate interactions between cells which allow the cells to attach to a surface, a substrate, or another cell.
Cell Fate: when a cell has committed to differentiation or specification.
Cell Migration:
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a process during development where the cell organizes development regarding tissue formation, maintenance, and injury and community responses. Cytoskeleton: tubules and filaments that make up the internal support and structures of the cell. Competence: The ability of a cell to respond to its environment and external stimuli.
Conditional Specification: The opposite of autonomous specification; the cell requires external stimuli such as morphogens and inducing signals, or cell-cell interactions to determine how it develops.
Differential Splicing: The splicing of a gene that can result in multiple different combinations of genes from a single gene.
Differentiation: A process during development where a cell becomes committed to becoming more specialized.
Determinant: proteins, hormones, or signals that determine the cell’s fate.
Epithelium: derived from the endoderm and ectoderm, the outermost layer a body formed a thin tissue.
Extracellular Matrix: The mixture of components on the exterior of the cell; molecules that help surrounding cells and are secreted by the surrounding cells.
G Proteins: A family of proteins that function as molecular switches and transmit signals from exterior to interior of the cell. Another name for these proteins includes guanine nucleotide-binding proteins.
Gap Junctions: A channel between cell membranes where ions and small molecules can pass.
Genomic Equivalence: the theory that states that all cells from the same organism contain the same
DNA. Golgi: In eukaryotic cells, its an organelle that is located near the nucleus; it appears as stacks and modifies proteins for specific jobs. Induction: the process by which a cell is induced to become something more specialized or is directed into what to become. Integrins: a two part molecule necessary for cell adhesion. MAP Kinases: MAP- mitogen activated protein; serine and threonine specific kinase. Mesenchyme: tissue of the mesoderm that develops into the skeletal into connective tissue. Morphogen: a chemical signal that helps a cell know what to become; an induction signal. Oncogene: a mutated gene that can cause a tumor. Peptide Hormones: hormones made of amino acids that act on an area or system of cells. Potency: the effectiveness of something to affect something else; for example the effectiveness of morphogens influencing a cell to commit. Receptor Kinase: a type of kinase that are cell surface receptor for growth factors that affect polypeptides, hormones, and cytokines; also known as RTK (receptor tyrosine kinase). Signal Transduction: a series of chemical reactions that occur after a signal molecule attaches to a receptor present on the cell membrane. Steroids: hormones, vitamins, and alkaloid that contain four rings of carbon. Tumor Suppressor: a gene that protects the cell from tumors or cancer called an anti-oncogene; leads to cancer when mutations occur. Ubiquitin- a single chain polypeptide that functions as a degrater of proteins that no longer functions as it should.
These cells form a shape such that each individual cell always remains in contact with 3 other cells at all times. The cells are held together by regions known as intercalated disks. These overlapping, finger-like extensions of the cell membrane contain gap junctions and desmosomes. Gap junctions are protein-lined tunnels which allow currents to travel from cell to cell to ensure the cells contract in unison. Desmosomes are known to hold the heart cells together during a contraction.
G-protein-linked receptors are protein receptors, located in the plasma membrane of a cell, that work with G-proteins to activate a cell-signaling pathway. These receptors are structured similarly in most organisms, with seven α helices and specific loops for binding sites for signal molecules and G-proteins. When a signal molecule from the extracellular fluid attaches to the signal-binding site it activates the G-protein-linked receptor by changing its shape. When this happens, the G-protein, loosely attached to the cytoplasmic side of the cellular membrane, attaches to its binding side on the receptor protein. The inactive G-protein becomes activated when GDP is displaced by GTP, a molecule similar to ATP. When the signal molecule is released, the G-protein diffuses along the cell membrane and attaches to an inactive enzyme. This newly activated enzyme triggers the cellular response. When the protein detaches itself from the enzyme, it releases a phosphate group turning GTP back into GDP, making the G-protein inactive once again.
The book Genome by Matt Ridley tells the story of the relationship between genome and life by examining the twenty three chromosomes of the human DNA. Each chromosome literally and metaphorically becomes a chapter in the literal and metaphorical book of DNA. In this book of DNA, Ridley examines a particular aspect of the chromosomes chapter by chapter to see how it affects life and humanity’s understanding of life, humans and genetics itself. Although each chapter dives into different aspects of DNA and gathers stories as varied as the genes’ applications, Ridley connects them with important ideas about life and humanity’s understanding of life.
Epithelia tissue : Epithelial tissue, the type of tissue that lines the surfaces and cavities of your body 's organs, epithelia may be composed of several layers of cells called compound epithelia or just a single layer known as simple epithelia.
The endothelium is a cell layer that is lined on the interior surface of lymphatic vessels and blood vessels, which are made up of endothelial cells (Dorland, 2012).
Epitheral tissues develop in the embryo from all three layers. Connective tissues and muscle tissues all derive from mesoderm. Ectoderm gives rise to nervous tissue.
The PBS Epigenetics video (2007) also showcases another study conducted on identical twins, two human beings born of the same fertilized egg who have the same DNA. The study wanted to understand why twins can have identical DNA and still experience differences in their bodies’ growth and deve...
Speciation and gene duplication followed by modifications are considered to be the primary events of genome evolution and were well recognized in the pre genomic era. The genes having a relationship of common descent are termed as homologs. The concept of orthology and paralogy were introduced by Walter Fitch in 1970 to distinguish between homologous genes according to their mode of descent. Orthologs are homologous genes related via vertical descent or speciation whereas paralogs are homologous genes originating through duplication in a certain lineage [1]. Paralogs can be further classified into outparalogs and inparalogs depending upon whether the gene duplication antedate or postdate the speciation event respectively [2].
The epithelium tissue helps protect the body. It lines the surface. Epithelial tissue has an apical surface which means it is lined with microvilli above tight junctions. There are four main types of epithelium tissues; squamous epithelial cells, Cuboidal epithelial cells, columnar epithelial cells and ciliated columnar cells. The squamous epithelium protects the linings in the body such as blood vessels and air sacs in the lungs. The cuboidal epithelium protects things such as the kidneys and glands as they can
I knew it was epithelia as the cells on the slide were connected to form sheets that were attached to a basement membrane, two characteristics of epithelia tissue. (Urry, L.A. et al., 2017) Epithelia cells are polar meaning that they always have one side of the cell facing a lumen (cavity) which is another way I identified these cells as epithelial. (Urry, L.A. et al., 2017) I identified it was simple epithelia as there was only one layer of cells and they were all connected to the basement membrane. (Urry, L.A. et al., 2017 ) It was identified as cuboidal as the cells looked like squares. They were also identified as this as they had their nucleus placed centrally in the cells. (Mitchell, B.S. & Peel, S 2009) The tissue is also ciliated and this can be seen in the lumen as there are areas that are blurred in the slide which suggest cilia as the cells are smaller that of epithelia. (Mitchell, B.S. & Peel, S 2009)
N-Glycans in eukaryotic cells have a common Man3GlcNAc2 core linked to the Asparagine (Asn) residue in the Asn-X-Ser/Thr sequons of proteins (where X is an amino acid other than proline) and can be classified to high-mannose, complex, and hybrid three types (Figure 1.1). They are presented on many secreted and membrane-bound glycoproteins.
The cell membrane also called as plasma membrane and it is a semi permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm.
inherited genetic template, known as the genome, which has evolved during the entire lifespan of