Concrete masonry and its alternatives
Dense masonry aggregate blocks
In use from the 1940s onwards, dense aggregate blocks are very much the work-horse of the construction industry. Their distinctive properties of durability and strength make them an ideal and cost-effect solution for all types of load-bearing walls. Dense aggregate concrete blocks are manufactured from cement, sand and aggregates.
• Typical thermal conductivity: 0.70 – 1.28 W/mK
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Lightweight masonry aggregate blocks
Lightweight blocks are manufactured from cement together with one of a variety of natural or man-made expanded aggregates including: granulated / foamed blast-furnace slag, expanded clay or shale, furnace bottom ash (FBA), pulverised fuel ash (PFA), or the less common pumice (a volcanic material) . The density of the aggregate is generally proportional to the strength of the block - so for example ‘super-lightweight’ aggregates such as expanded clay and pumice used for their excellent thermal performance, feature a relatively low compressive strength.
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Aerated masonry concrete or ‘aircrete’ blocks
First produced in Sweden in 1923 and used in the UK since the 1960s (when they were known as ‘cellular’ or ‘gas’ concrete blocks), aerated concrete or ‘aircrete’ blocks are the lightest of the family
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The blocks can be used both as the inner leaf in cavity walls or as a single skin for external load-bearing construction. As well as their use in walls, clay honeycomb blocks can be used in many of the same applications as concrete blocks. The blocks are formed with a cellular structure of vertical perforations that reduces the material quantity as well as weight whilst providing an increased thermal performance. Blocks are assembled through dry vertical interlocking and thin-mortar horizontal
There are two types of aggregate piers: Rammed Aggregate Piers and Vibrated Aggregate Piers (vibro stone columns).
One of the most common forms of megalith architecture in Europe. Portal tombs are constructed with several upright stone blocks with
Then another layer was put on which was made up of crushed rocks or gravel cemented with lime mortar, the surface layer was made by using neatly arrange blocks of gravel, pebbles, iron ore, or hardened volcanic
The usage of concrete was explored by the Early Christian and Roman architects but fell out of use throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance period. The material was only fully explored again in the later half of the 19th century but only for mundane purposes where the material was cheap, easy to work with, and versatile, but most importantly it’s fireproof characteristic. In 1870, the idea of reinforcing the concrete was born; steel rods were to be inserted to increase its strength. Taking this principle, Ernest Ransome (America) and Francois Hennebique (France) both developed frame systems. From this, open plan workspaces with large windows were created and it was proved to be well accommodated where fire had previously been a danger. Hennebique’s system used slim vertical posts, thin parallel beams on brackets and floor slabs; this resulted somewhat like a timber frame. Concrete was one of the most flexible materials and one with a least determining form. Concrete relied on its mould and the intelligence of its designer to give it aesthetic qualities for one to appreciate it. This became much more obvious when the architects of the last 19th century attempted to discover a style based on this material.
A brick is essentially a modular unit of fired or dried clay which has evolved as a building material throughout the centuries. The earliest bricks were simply cut from a thin slab of clay with straw reinforcement and then sun-dried. Subsequently, the Romans used wooden frames as moulds to make their bricks and fired them afterwards. Later again, circa the 1100’s bricks were produced using ‘pallet moulding’ and ‘slop moulding methods’. This was a method whereby timber moulds held the clay and any surplus clay was cut off. The timber mould technique remains the method for hand-made bricks today.
A typical foundation is constructed out of concrete in the New England Area. Foundations in the New england area have Continuous footings. Continuous footings have what is called a Keyway in the center of the footing. Keyways are Longitudinal grooves in the concrete. These grooves allow longitudinal support to the foundation walls. Foundation walls are the vertical walls that extend from the footings to the first floor. Foundation walls in the New England area are constructed out of Concrete. Foundations must be waterproofed “ In areas where a high water table or other severe soil-water conditions are known to exist, exterior foundation walls enclosing habitable or storage space shall be waterproofed with a membrane extending from the top of the footing to the finished grade. The membrane shall consist of two-ply hot-mopped felts, 55 pound (25 Kg) roll Roofing, 6-mil (0.15 mm) polyvinyl chloride, six-mil (o.15 mm) polyethylene or 40 mil (1 mm) Polymer-modified asphalt. The
Concrete retaining walls (floodwalls) are a viable alternative in urban areas where land space available is limited.
[20] BS Part 116: 1983. Testing Concrete and determination of compressive strength. British Standards Institution ;
Asbestos in Liverpool may be found in many homes in different forms depending upon their age. Renovations or demolition of buildings can only be done after a risk assessment to check the location, quantity and condition of any asbestos or asbestos-containing materials in the building. Asbestos was used in building materials for a number of reasons. It was cheap, durable, flexible and naturally acted as an insulating and fireproofing agent. Asbestos-containing cement was used in building materials because the fibers provided strength without adding much weight. Its insulating and fire-resistant properties also made the mineral an ideal substance to add to cement. Flooring, ceiling and roofing tiles were commonly made with asbestos.
Concrete is a composite material used widely in the construction industry. Concrete is basically a mixture of cement, water, aggregates and admixture (sometimes). Cement is a fine gray powder that consists of oxidizes calcium, silicon and aluminum. The aggregate used is normally gravel, crushed stone or sand. Admixture is a solid or liquid substance that gives a certain characteristics of the concrete. The cement reacts with water chemically and binds the aggregates together through a process called hydration during hardening or curing of concrete. It means that water helps in the hardening of the concrete while the cement bind the aggregate and also react with water to form a solid mass.
The industrial age brought with it creative freedom. Production in this time was on an unseen scale and saw the proliferation of new construction materials; reinforced concrete, steel, and glass. These materials were experimented with, manipulated, and used to create all sorts of structures that would have been impossible using older methods of construction. The use of these new materials lead to the iconic structures recognizable the world over.
Without a doubt, domes are beautiful infrastructures of human creation. But how did they think about those infrastructures, how did they came with the idea of building a dome? This is a design that engineers still use nowadays in 2016. Many people have use domes has gorgeous structures, for protection, or even for climate purposes. They are all around the world, they are being used by different people, but one thing is sure, they all have different ways of being seen and different stories that keep them mysterious. Despite their mysterious side, the domes’ historical side can’t be discuss without the Dome of the Rock and Brunelleschi’s dome; both of religious aspects of the middle east.
Concrete is Artificial Stone obtained by mixing cement, sand and aggregates with water. Fresh concrete can be molded into almost any shape which is an inherent advantage over other materials.
Benefits of utilizing an EPS-block geofoam embankment include: (1) ease and speed of construction, (2) placement in adverse weather conditions, (3) possible elimination of the need for preloading, surcharging, and staged construction, (4) decreased maintenance costs as a result of less settlement from the low density of EPS-block geofoam, (6) reduction of lateral stress on bridge approach abutments, (7) use over existing utilities which reduces or eliminates utility relocation, (8) excellent durability, and (9) ability to be recycled. In a soil removal and replacement situation without the use of surcharging, the use of EPS-block geofoam may result in cost savings compared to other types of lightweight fill materials and conventional fill materials because the density of geofoam is 1/10th to 1/30th of the density of foamed concrete, 1/55th to 1/145th of the in-place density of boiler slag, and 1/100th of the density of conventional granular fill
Over 83 percent of teenagers report school to be a major stressor in their lives due to the amount of information that they need to cram into their brains every day (Shapiro). Many schools have tried to understand the stress school gives to the teenagers and offer some sort of temporary solution by offering late start days or homework passes to overall reduce the workload that they receive, but these solutions do not point to any sort of resolution to the teenagers stress. All of these solutions fall in comparison to the benefits of having a block schedule for the students. A block schedule is when students split up their 7 to 8 classes into two separate days, but double the time of the classes every day. They go through the week with A and