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History of the development of computers
History of the development of computers
History of the development of computers
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computer architecture
Computer architecture covers the design of system software,
such as the operating system (the program that controls the computer), as
well as referring to the combination of hardware and basic software that
links the machines on a computer network. Computer architecture refers to
an entire structure and to the details needed to make it functional. Thus,
computer architecture covers computer systems, microprocessors, circuits,
and system programs. Typically the term does not refer to application
programs, such as spreadsheets or word processing, which are required to
perform a task but not to make the system run.
In designing a computer system, architects consider five major
elements that make up the system's hardware: the arithmetic/logic unit,
control unit, memory, input, and output. The arithmetic/logic unit performs
arithmetic and compares numerical values. The control unit directs the
operation of the computer by taking the user instructions and transforming
them into electrical signals that the computer's circuitry can understand.
The combination of the arithmetic/logic unit and the control unit is called
the central processing unit (CPU). The memory stores instructions and
data. The input and output sections allow the computer to receive and
send data, respectively.
Different hardware architectures are required because of the
specialized needs of systems and users. One user may need a system to
display graphics extremely fast, while another system may have to be
optimized for searching a database or conserving battery power in a laptop
computer.
In addition to the hardware design, the architects must consider
what software programs will operate the system. Software, such as
programming languages and operating systems, makes the details of the
hardware architecture invisible to the user. For example, computers that use
the C programming language or a UNIX operating system may appear the
same from the user's viewpoint, although they use different hardware
architectures.
When a computer carries out an instruction, it proceeds
through five steps. First, the control unit retrieves the instruction from
memory—for example, an instruction to add two numbers. Second, the
control unit decodes the instructions into electronic signals that control the
computer. Third, the control unit fetches the data (the two numbers).
Fourth, the arithmetic/logic unit performs the specific operation (the
addition of the two numbers). Fifth, the control unit saves the result (the
sum of the two numbers).
Early computers used only simple instructions because the
cost of electronics capable of carrying out complex instructions was high.
As this cost decreased in the 1960s, more complicated instructions
became possible. Complex instructions can save time because they make
it unnecessary for the computer to retrieve additional instructions. For
example, if seven operations are combined in one instruction, then six of
Processor (CPU) – The processor, also known as the Central Processing Unit runs the operating system and other applications. It is constantly receiving data from the user or other active software. The data is then processed and then an output is produced which either will be displayed on screen or stored by an application.
The processor is the factory floor of the computer; it’s recipient of all the instructions and then processes them. It conveys the instructions of a computer program by performing rudimentary arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system.
Every year, innocent people are given prison sentences to crimes they did not commit. Statistics are kept by the Criminal Justice Department on the number of wrongful convictions but according to research, it has been estimated to 5% of the cases tried have resulted in a false conviction. Reasons due to false convictions are misidentification from a witness, false confessions, forensic mistakes, DNA testing, coercion, and more. A number of ideas will be argued as possible solutions to help lower the number of wrongful convictions that are given the innocent people who fall trapped to this system. A study by Barry Scheck [2008] on forensic evidence revealed that not more than 20% of the felony cases involved biological evidence [Scheck, 2008, p.4]. Although the number seems low, the proper handling and testing of biological evidence can offer some hope to an innocent suspect. Other variables that lead to wrongful convictions are false statements and confessions. Which that can be taken from suspects through questionable actions of methods. [Leo, Ofshe, 1998] or that pooled from jailhouse snitched, informants, or cooperators. Many people believe that the use of evidence has been corrupted in the system while others believe that cases where evidence is used are deviations from the typical process. “Eyewitness misidentifications were a factor in over 70% of wrongful convictions.” The knowledge that a free citizen could be unreasonably sentenced to prison or executed by the State is totally opposed the thought of shrewd treatment likely in the United States. DNA is the leading cause to wrongful convictions. If the problem is to be talked and fixed, it must first be understood; not as it is seen, but as it is. It is difficult to express...
It was the OJ Simpson case which should have taken centre stage for scientific evidence. It was the DNA to which was found at the crime scene and in OJ Simpsons home and Ford Bronco to which carried prosecutors beyond motive, means and opportunity to the point where they could say they had direct physical proof that he was the killer. The majority of jurors who spoke publicly about acquitting OJ believed he was innocent although had concern about the investigative elements such as the scientific
The most common interfaces for small computer systems are AT (IDE) and SCSI. c) Compatibility of computer networks types including LANs and WANs, for example UNIX and Window NT are usually use to become the mainframe of WANs networking system. 3. a)Multi tasking - In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much
A computer processor is called the CPU (Central processing unit) and is the brain of the computer. The CPU carries out the instructions of the computer by doing such things as math. The processor also communicates with all of your other components in your computer and tells them what to do. The processor carries out millions of instructions every second.
The debate over whether or not the design|architecture} design or the CISC architecture is best has been occurring for several years. whether or not design|architecture} design with its tiny however economical instruction set or the CISC architecture with its massive and straightforward to use instruction set is best has been arduous to work out. during a time once new chips ar free nearly monthly, corporations wish to create certain they need the sting over the competition. they require their chips to be designed with speed in mind. several chips have used either the Reduced Instruction Set pc or the advanced Instruction Set pc since the start of the pc era however whether or not one is best has ne'er been a clear-cut issue. They each have strengths and weaknesses. we tend to ar progressing to discuss the advantages and downsides of every design and verify that is that the higher design.
The central unit is the basic part of the computer and includes all the main computer parts. It is the heart of the computer system. It is responsible for executing, or running the software. The software programs are translated into a series of codes made up of 1s to 0s that the CPU can understand. Every code means a certain operation should take place.
The Von-Neumann Architecture that describes a general structure that a computer’s hardware should follow when processing data. The Von Neumann architecture has different entities that it uses to process the information/data. These are input/output (i/o), main memory and the processing unit, which are connect via buses, buses are used to connect all components together in order for them communicate. The processing unit is broken down into several sub-systems these are as followed, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Program Control Unit (CC), and the Program counter. (Computer Organization I, n.d.).
System units are commonly mistaken as the Central Processing unit (CPU). System units sometimes called “computer chassis”, “base units” or “Tower cases” however are simply the housing for the integral parts of a computer. System units usual house all components of a computer excluding the monitor, Keyboard and mouse. System Units are a very simple component of the computer because they do none of the actual computing. They are usually just a square or rectangular prism made of some type of plastic or metal that hold all of the vital parts of a computer in a secure manner. Other than that there is not much to be said about the system unit.
Prior to the revolution in technology that was microprocessors, making a computer was a large task for any manufacturer. Computers used to be built solely on discrete, or individual, transistors soldered together. Microprocessors act as the brain of a computer, doing all mathematics. Depending on how powerful the machine was intended to be, this could take weeks or even months to produce with individual components. This laborious task put the cost of a computer beyond the reach of any regular person. Computers before lithographic technology were massive and were mostly used in lab scenarios (Brain 1).
A computer is a combination of several parts. These parts are Random Access Memory (RAM), a Central Processing
The First Generation of Computers The first generation of computers, beginning around the end of World War 2, and continuing until around the year 1957, included computers that used vacuum tubes, drum memories, and programming in machine code. Computers at that time where mammoth machines that did not have the power our present day desktop microcomputers. In 1950, the first real-time, interactive computer was completed by a design team at MIT. The "Whirlwind Computer," as it was called, was a revamped U.S. Navy project for developing an aircraft simulator.
The fist computer, known as the abacus, was made of wood and parallel wires on which beads were strung. Arithmetic operations were performed when the beads were moved along the wire according to “programming” rules that had to be memorized by the user (Soma, 14). The second earliest computer, invented by Blaise Pascal in 1694, was a “digital calculating machine.” Pascal designed this first known digital computer to help his father, who was a tax collector. Pascal’s computer could only add numbers, and they had to be entered by turning dials (Soma, 32). It required a manual process like its ancestor, the abacus. Automation was introduced in the early 1800’s by a mathematics professor named Charles Babbage. He created an automatic calculation machine that was steam powered and stored up to 1000 50-digit numbers. Unlike its two earliest ancestors, Babbage’s invention was able to perform various operations. It relied on cards with holes punched in them, which are called “punch cards.” These cards carried out the programming and storing operations for the machine. Unluckily, Babbage’s creation flopped due to the lack of mechanical precision and the lack of demand for the product (Soma, 46). The machine could not operate efficiently because technology was t adequate to make the machine operate efficiently Computer interest dwindled for many years, and it wasn’t until the mid-1800’s that people became interested in them once again.
Choosing a career is very important in a person’s life. Over the past two decades, many professions have change significantly with the influx of technological developments. One needs to think about the things that interest them and what kind of lifestyle they want to have. Some things a person should think about are what qualifications are needed, what type of training is necessary, and the future need of the career they choose. Some other things to consider would be how much money they will make, what is the probability of advancement, and does the career satisfy their need for an enjoyable life.