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About quantum mechanics
An essay on the history of the universe
About quantum mechanics
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Sub-atomic particles, known as quarks, electrons, photons, and neutrinos were strewn across expanding space. Equal amounts of matter and antimatter particles began to collide and annihilate each other. Gravity, strong and weak nuclear forces, and electromagnetic forces soon came into play.
As the universe started to cool, fundamental particles called quarks began to smash together forming protons and neutrons. They, in turn, merged to create the nuclei of simple elements, beginning with hydrogen, helium, and lithium. This primordial soup contained the building blocks for everything in the universe. Voilà, the universe was born.
Matter and energy continued to expand. Static electricity and gravity brought the expanding matter together. Nuclear fusion bound chunks of rock, gases, minerals, and metals into stable masses forming stars, planets, and galaxies. Electromagnetic forces produced the light and chemical interactions necessary to create life. Electrons finally cooled their jets and slowed down enough to orbit atomic nuclei; stable atoms began to take shape. Although scientists cannot pinpoint the exact year, microbial life is thought to have appeared about 3.7 billion years ago.
Note: The first seconds of the universe were pure energy. That energy was transformed into the matter and energy that is recognizable today. Einstein’s notable equation, E=MC2, predicted the relationship between energy and mass. In other words, energy is equal to mass, multiplied by the speed of light squared.
Where, oh where, is the antimatter? Over the years, the exact location of matter’s evil foe has presented a bit of a conundrum for scientists. If equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created in the first few seconds of the Big Bang, and ...
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... into a separate membrane that could float parallel to other membranes. Each membrane would constitute a separate universe. Universes could be stacked-up like plate of pancakes at IHOP. Gravitational forces could be transferred by stringy gravitons from one membrane to a parallel membrane. This process could account for gravity’s weakness in the known universe.
The theory goes on to explain that string vibrations may not only correspond to the known forces of nature, but possibly to forces of nature that are unfamiliar and unrecognizable in the known universe, but serve some function in another. If the multi-dimension theory is accurate, countless universes could be floating around on separate membranes and remain undetectable to each other. Could one be Heaven? Could one be Hell? Could one be Purgatory? Could one be a universe created specifically for politicians?
Einstein's equation "E=mc^2" has two sides which is constructive and destructive. The constructive side is when energy is converted into mass and the destructive side is when a small amount of mass is converted into energy. According to Einstein’s equation, the physicists of the Manhattan project hypothesized that a minute mass ...
Matter, as we conceive it today, did not exist after the Big Bang, because the temperature was too high for that. While trying to join protons and electrons, light continually crossed apart. Only when the universe had cooled to 3,000 K, the atoms are held together and the light was beginning to happen.
“A new (but yet unproven) theory proposes that all matter—from the page of this book to the skin of a peach—consists of tiny loops of vibrating strings. String (or Superstring) Theory,
Theoretical physics uses mathematical formulas to make predictions or theories about what happens in the natural world (Rújula). Theoretical physics is a complex yet interesting science, is filled with theories which people cannot prove, but they also cannot disprove. The theory the author uses in the novel is the multiple universe, or multiverse theory. According to Charles Seife, the multiverse theory states that: “Space is infinite. Within any finite volume of space, however, matter and energy can be arranged in only a f...
The simplest case to imagine is a single string traveling in a flat spacetime in d dimensions, meaning that it is traveling across space while time is ticking, so to speak. A string is a one-dimensional object, meaning that if you want to travel along a string, you can only go forwards or backwards in the direction of the string, there is no sideways or up and down on a string. The string can move sideways or up and down in spacetime, though, and as the string moves around in spacetime, it sweeps out a surface in spacetime called the string worldsheet, a two-dimensional surface with one dimension of space and one dimension of time.
The Big Bang, the alpha of existence for the building blocks of stars, happened approximately fourteen billion years ago. The elements produced by the big bang consisted of hydrogen and helium with trace amounts of lithium. Hydrogen and helium are the essential structure which build stars. Within these early stars, heavier elements were slowly formed through a process known as nucleosynthesis. Nucleosythesis is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons. As the stars expel their contents, be it going supernova, solar winds, or solar explosions, these heavier elements along with other “star stuff” are ejected into the interstellar medium where they will later be recycled into another star. This physical process of galactic recycling is how or solar system's mass came to contain 2% of these heavier elements.
...ity, strange energy-fluid that filled in space, and that Einstein’s theory of gravity could be wrong and a new theory could be found about the cosmic acceleration. Dark energy effects space and time. Dark energy overcomes gravity. In the 1990s, astrophysicists examined distant supernovae to calculate the deceleration of the universe. These astrophysicists were surprised by the results of actually seeing that the universe is accelerating. The Hubble law is the rate of expansion and acceleration of the universe. The results from measurements made off the Hubble law confirms the existence of dark energy and how much of it exists. Quintessence is the possibility that the universe is filled with a changing energy field. According to Einstein’s cosmological constant for a stationary universe, empty space can have its own energy and can increase when more space emerges.
Billion years ago, there was an extra-ordinary event without which nothing would exist. It was the beginning of the universe. It was the time when a large amount of energy in an infinitely small space violently expanded and led to the creation of universe and everything else that we see around us today. It can perhaps be regarded as the greatest scientific achievement to understand the history and nature of how the universe came into being.
Matter takes up space. According to the defining characteristics of matter and energy, matter can only be located in one location at any point in time while the superposition of energy is possible (Nave). Due to only being able to occupy one location, the phenomenon of two particles of mass occupying the same space would disprove that matter is different than energy (“What is Matter?”). When positrons (positively charged electrons) and electrons, which are both fermions, collide they undergo a process known as electron-positron annihilation (“Electron-Positron Annihilation”). The process of electron-positron annihilation results in both particles producing photons. The production of photons introduces an interesting variable when defining the existence of mass: photons, which are also classified as bosons, can experience superposition (Strassler). However, the production of non-matter particles on its own does not disprove the existence of mass.
Antimatter production is a relatively easy concept, but the details are mind bogeling. In 1932, Carl Anderson, was examining tracks produced by cosmic rays in a cloud chamber. One particle made a track like an electron, but carvature of its path in the magnetic field was one consistent with a possitive charged particle. He named this new particle a positron. Later, in the 1950’s, physicists at the Lawrence Radiation Lab used the Beratron accelerator to produce the anti-proton. Upon examination of this particle they found that it had the same mass and spin as a proton, but with negative charge and opposite magnetic moment. The process they used to create this particle with first to accelerate a proton to a very high speed, and then smash it into a target. This collision produces an antiproton and three protons, or in other words a proton antiproton pair and the two original protons. This seems to suggest that for each antiproton produced, there is one proton. This would sugget whole other worlds made of antimatter. However, this is a whole other debate.
The heavens and earth were one swirling entity encased within an egg shaped cloud. A being arose from inside the depths of the egg; a giant named Pan Gu. He grew until he awoke and broke the egg, releasing the matter into the universe. Lighter elements formed the heavens, and the heavier ones formed the earth. Pan Gu was worried the heavens and earth may mix again, so he stood on earth and held up the skies.
Generally, the universe began as a composition of radiation and subatomic particles, which proceeded with galaxies formation. Galaxies are made up of hydrogen, helium, 100-200 billions of stars, planets and most having a black hole at the center, which attracts everything present in galaxies by force of gravity. Galaxies can be classified as either spiral (Milky Way- galaxy which human kind has been found to exist), elliptical, lenticular and irregular, where the structure is determined by neighboring galaxies with most galaxies are moving away from each other. Classification of galaxies is being conducted by online programs such as Galaxy zoo, using pictures from telescopes and is making significant progress.
To answer the first question, according to many physicists, astronomers, and especially cosmologists the multiverse theory is a definite possibility. While there may not be a consensus on the issue, a reasonable number agree that our universe is, “But one of many pocket universes within a wider expanse called the multiverse” (Jenkins and Perez, 42). This infinite number of diverse universes originated in the primordial vacuum of space as a “tiny patch of spacetime…as small as a billionth the size of a proton” (Jenkins and Perez, 48), and underwent a period of rapid inflation. From such growth, all happening at different rates due to variations in constants and physical properties, pockets formed, ...
In addition, Einstein was able to show that mass and energy were related, with the legendary formula E=mc2. Basically, Einstein found that the mass of the object increased as an object approached the speed of light, c. Therefore the object goes faster, but it also gets heavier. If it were actually able to move at c, the object’s mass and energy would both be infinite. A heavier object is harder to speed up, so it’s impossible to ever actually get the particle up to a speed of c. This relationship was proven most dramatically to the world when nuclear bombs released the energy of mass in Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.
This is probably the greatest discovery imaginable; however, the universe still seems to be a very controversial subject.