The Hippocratic Oath

1. Should physicians be guided by the Hippocratic Oath? Is it applicable to modern day medical practice and society? (Discuss 2 issues in today’s society that are in conflict with the Hippocratic Oath) (10 points)

The Hippocratic Oath is a moral code for ethical conduct and practice in medicine. It was established accordingly to the ideals of Hippocrates, who belonged to the medical brotherhood of Asclepiads; he was considered the Father of Medicine because he separated the art and science of medicine from philosophy and religion. The oath was written between 470-380 BCE. One version of the Hippocratic Oath states, “I swear by Apollo Physician and Asclepius and Hygieia and Panaceia and all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses,

that I will fulfill according to my ability and judgment this oath and this covenant: To hold him who has taught me this art as equal to my parents and to live my life in partnership with him, and if he is in need of money to give him a share of mine, and to regard his offspring as equal to my brothers in male lineage and to teach them this art—if they desire to learn it—without fee and covenant; to give a share of precepts and oral instruction and all the other learning to my sons and to the sons of him who has instructed me and to pupils who have signed the covenant and have taken an oath according to the medical law, but no one else. I will apply dietetic measures for the benefit of the sick according to my ability and judgment; I will keep them from harm and injustice. I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody who asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect. Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy. In purity and holiness I will guard my life and my art. I will not use the knife, not even on sufferers from stone, but will withdraw in favor of such men as are engaged in this work. Whatever houses I may visit, I will come for the benefit of the sick, remaining free of all intentional injustice, of all mischief and in particular of sexual relations with both female and male persons, be they free or slaves. What I may see or hear in the course of the treatment or even outside of the treatment in regard to the life of men, which on no account one must spread abroad, I will keep to myself, holding such things shameful to be spoken about. If I fulfill this oath and do not violate it, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and art, being honored with fame among all men for all time to come; if I transgress it and swear falsely, may the opposite of all this be my lot.” - Translation from the Greek by Ludwig Edelstein. From The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation, by Ludwig Edelstein. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1943.
Very few institutions use the original Hippocratic Oath during commencement ceremonies. However, most, if not all, medical schools recite some form of the oath to observe ethical principles in the practice of medicine, as well as promise to obey to these principles. The original version of the oath sought to call upon the Greek gods and goddesses, promising them to teach the art of medicine to their teachers’ children without fee, as well as nonparticipation in performing surgery. The oath promised to prohibit physician-assisted suicide, abortion, and any sexual involvement with patients. When taking a look at the modern practice of medicine, this original oath seems completely disobeyed. The modern versions of the oath omit these promises.
According to a 1993 survey of 150 U.S. and Canadian medical schools, only 14 percent of modern oaths prohibit euthanasia, 11 percent hold covenant with a deity, 8 percent foreswear abortion, and 3 percent forbid sexual contact with patients, all of which were held sacred in the classical version (Tyson, 2001). The original oath also called for free tuition for medical students and for doctors never to "use the knife" (conduct surgical procedures); yet, both are in opposition with modern-day practice (Tyson, 2001). Yes, doctors should take an oath upon commencement of medical school, promising to do best by their patients through every parameter. However, they should not have to be guided by the Hippocratic oath because it is not applicable to modern medical practices and the modern society. The Hippocratic oath presents several problems for the modern practitioner. As stated by Tyson, 2001, “a growing number of physicians have come to feel that the Hippocratic Oath is inadequate to address the realities of a medical world that has witnessed huge scientific, economic, political, and social changes, a world of legalized abortion, physician-assisted suicide, and pestilences unheard of in Hippocrates' time”. Medical specialization is increasing today more and more, how is one single oath able to guide so many “different stripes”? How can doctors maintain patient privacy when government and health-care organizations demand patient information? With the increasing amount of lethal new diseases, should doctors be obligated to treat such ill-fated cases or allow their patient to “go in peace”? Many questions are arising from doctors who are questioning the relevance of the Hippocratic Oath to their modern medicinal practices.
When comparing the Hippocratic Oath to modern society, one issue that stands out is its reference to abortion, “I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy”.

With abortion becoming legal in so many countries, it is hard for physicians to swear by an oath stating they would not perform abortions. According to the Center for Reproductive Rights 2013 Fact Sheet, about 61 countries, that is, 39% of the world’s population has made abortion legal. Therefore, doctors from these 61 countries would be breaking the promises they made when taking the oath not to perform abortions. For example, in the United States prohibition against abortion would violate U. S. laws and alienate 40% of its population. In the case of Roe vs. Wade in 1973, the United States Supreme Court rejected the Hippocratic Oath’s authority in prohibiting abortion based on the fact that the oath did not reflect ancient cultural norms but instead reflected the influence of Judeo-Christian views on

abortion.
Another issue that conflicts the Hippocratic Oath is euthanasia. It is constantly argued whether or not euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide is wrong or right. As stated by the Hippocratic Oath, “I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody who asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect”, this statement clearly disagrees with euthanasia; but what about patients that are terminally ill and suffering. Opponents say physicians can't ethically be involved in ending patients' lives because of their pledge not to do harm. But proponents counter that doctors do harm by forcing terminally ill patients to endure pain and suffering when they would like to end their lives (Zamichow and Murray, 2014). It is expected of doctors to respect an individual's desire to live, but what if that individual has a terminal disease that doctors predict will result in a painful death? Which decision would cause more harm: forcing the terminally ill patient to suffer and live or allowing them to die without pain? Which is more or less following the practice to “first do no harm”? Most Americans support the idea of allowing terminally ill patients to end their lives, according to recent polls (Zamichow and Murray, 2014). Physician-assisted suicide is legal in several states in America, as well as many other parts of the world. Therefore, the prohibition of euthanasia by the Hippocratic Oath conflicts with the practices of today’s modern society.

2. Are the 42 Laws of Ma’at under Kemet Law applicable to modern society? (Discuss 2 issues that apply to modern society and their applicability to bioethical dilemmas) (10 points)

Ma’at is the Kemetic or Egyptian concept of truth, morality, balance, order, law and justice.

Ma’at also embodies a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of human and deities, who has been said to set the order of the universe from the moment of creation. The earliest surviving records indicating that Ma’at is the custom for nature and society were recorded during the Old Kingdom; the earliest substantial surviving examples were found in the Pyramid Texts of Unas (2375 BCE and 2345 BCE). These laws were written about 2000 years before the 10 Commandments. These 42 laws are one of Africa’s, as well as the world’s, oldest source of moral and spiritual instruction. The laws of Ma’at represents the ethical and moral principles that every person is expected to follow throughout their daily lives. They were expected to act with honor and truth in manners that involve family, the community, the nation, the environment, in essence Neter (No author,

2016).
According to many scholars, the Ten Commandments were derived from the Laws of Ma’at. Therefore in terms of Christians, the Laws of Ma’at are applicable to modern society because these “virtues” are what they follow and try to do daily; they see these “virtues” as the right way to behave and live. In terms of other religions, some of them also try to do what is “right” therefore the laws can apply to them as well. In a world where crime is increasing tremendously and wars are becoming more frequent, the applicability of these laws would be more beneficial to the world itself. According to Ata Omom, the 42 laws were ethical principles that strived to maintain sacred melodious and harmonious relations amongst the Africans and the environment. Throughout Kemet history, the principles were considered essential in binding the society together. Truth, Balance, Righteousness, Justice, and Peace were Kemet's highest priorities and they were able to achieve it longer than any other human civilization known in recorded history.
One of the 42 Laws of Ma’at states, “I have not polluted the water. This law applies to modern society because we have many instances where water is polluted at the hands of those trying to make a profit. Take for example those companies who extract oil, whether from the land or in the ocean, it poses a risk to the environment and water. Water pollution is a bioethical dilemma, in that it affects the well being of humans and animals, as well as the environment itself. In 2010, the world experienced its largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico that endangered so much of the wildlife. As a result of this, this law is broken. However, utilitarians and deontologist believe that the consequences of oil spills are not entirely bad because the oil companies are working in the overall best interest of the greatest amount so as to provide oil to people.
Another law that relates to modern society is the law that states, "I have not stolen food”. This law is broken now more than ever. It is a bioethical dilemma because there is many instances where food is not allocated based on need. Some may say it is not stealing, but it in fact is. Some people working along with various charities tend to steal or eat food that is for those who need it, simply because they believe it is not wrong.

REFERNCES
Center For Reproductive Rights. (2013). The World’s Abortion Laws Map 2013 Update. Retrieved from https://www.reproductiverights.org/sites/crr.civicactions.net/files/documents/AbortionMap_Factsheet_2013.pdf
Hippocratic oath. (n.d.) Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health, Seventh Edition. (2003). Retrieved from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Hippocratic+oath
Hippocratic oath. (n.d.) Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary. (2012). Retrieved from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Hippocratic+oath
Kirby, I. (2014, April 24). The Hippocratic Oath and Professional Ethics. Ethical Issues in Health Care. Retrieved from https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/philosophy316/2014/04/24/the-hippocratic-oath-and-professional-ethics/
No author. (2016). The 42 Affirmations to Maat. Retrieved from http://www.knowthyself365.com/42-laws-of-maat/
Omom, A. (n. d.). MAAT Our New Social Policy. Retrieved from http://www.nathanielturner.com/maatournewsocialpolicy.htm
Tyson, P. (2001, March 27). The Hippocratic Oath Today. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html
Woodbury, E. (2012). The Fall of the Hippocratic Oath: Why the Hippocratic Oath should be Discarded in Favor of a Modified Version of Pellegrino’s Precepts. GU Journal of Health Sciences. 6 (2), 9-17.
Zamichow, N. & Murray, K. (2014, December 26). Op-Ed The Hippocratic oath and the terminally ill. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-zamichow-murray-hippocratic-oath-death-20141228-story.html