Short Term Memory: Recall of Related and Unrelated Words Manifa Gharapetian, David V. Burns, and Emily King California State University, Northridge Abstract Short Term Memory: Recall of Related and Unrelated Words Without short-term memory, completing routine daily tasks, those we take for granted, would be challenging. Something as simple as writing down a new phone number or address would be burdensome. Memory and factors effecting memory have been the focus of thousands of experiments in the field of psychology. Our research centered on experiments involving the recall of related and unrelated words. Many of those studies provided contradicting results. The inconsistencies motivated our interest in short-term memory recall of simple everyday words, both related and unrelated. Secondary variables may have an …show more content…
effect on short-term memory too. We found experiments using the variables of caffeine consumption, sleep and diet or nutrition to further understand short-term memory. First, Cohen (1963) designed a study two types of word lists, two related and one unrelated. His hypothesis was supported showing significant correlations with within-category word recall, but was not related to chunk recall. Then Merrit, DeLosh, and McDaniel, (2006), studied the assumption that free recall of mixed lists associated with the order of the words in the list had no significance. They concluded word frequency to be supported as the lists got longer. The relation of words was not an important factor when considering recall of words. To satisfy our concern with the secondary variables we chose to research, we turned to Hamleers et al., (2000), to consider the effects of caffeine on short-term memory. Their experiment concluded regular consumption of caffeine related to increased long term memory performance. There was no relevance found between caffeine consumption and short term memory. The researchers used the Stroop test to confirm their findings. This research is relevant to college students who consume caffeine to better improve memory and cognitive tasks. In a recent study, Grundgeiger, Bayen and Horn, (2014) probed the effect of sleep on short-term memory recall. They investigated the impact of sleep deprivation. The researchers focused on memory performance in future memory recall and memory tasks. Sleep deprivation reduced performance from a rigorous memory task. The results concluded sleep deprivation decreased the likelihood to perform well on intended tasks and actions. These, in turn, have severe consequences including the overall health and safety of individuals. These results can be widely generalized to college populations and effects on memory recall. Hoyland, Lawton and Dye, (2008), studied the effects macronutrients, specifically glucose, on test performance and cognition. Of all the factors the researchers studied, memory was deemed most susceptible to macronutrient manipulation. Furthermore, they hypothesized the absence of proper nutrition inhibited execution on short term memory tests by college students. The results did not show a specific correlation between consumption of macronutrients and improved test scores in college students. Our study aims to predict that the number of words recalled will be greater for the related list than the unrelated list. The findings from previous research provide supporting and contradicting evidence to our hypothesis in consideration to our secondary variables. Our hypothesis aims that short term memory recall of a list of containing specifically related words will be more accurate than the short-term memory recall of a list of unrelated words. In addition, the variables discussed in previous research were caffeine consumption, amount of sleep, and nutrition. The findings were mixed. However, the roles of free recall of related and unrelated words are key to the continued research of short-term and working memory. Method Participants The participants for this experiment were a nonrandom sample of convenience from a pool of qualified undergraduate Psychology students from California State University, Northridge. Their participation was part of a course requirement for all Psychology majors. All participants were required to have a college level reading ability. No exclusion criteria were established. The experiment included 97 undergraduate students (62 females, 35 males, Mage =19.5, Age Range = 18-34), class level (47 freshmen, 31 sophomores, 13 juniors, 6 seniors), and ethnicity (10 African American, 10 Asian, 17 Caucasian, 50 Hispanic or Latino, 10 other). The participants were divided into two groups. In the anticipation of up to 120 participants, 60 “A” and 60 “B” tabs were made. These tabs were randomly drawn out of a bag, and placed at each space before the participants entered the room. Due to the nonrandom sample of participants, this was the best way to simulate optimal randomization of variable conditions. Group A had 48 participants and received List A – related words first and List B – unrelated words second. Group B had 49 participants and received List B –unrelated words first and List A – related words second. The participants did not receive monetary compensation for their time since the experiment satisfied a condition of academic requirement. Materials We required nine items to conduct our experiment, a stopwatch, a list of twenty related words, a list of twenty unrelated words, a research specific questionnaire, two blank answer sheets, a blank cover page, a blank divider page, and a participant consent form. The word lists, answer sheets, and questionnaire were contained in a packet. Green printer paper dividers consisted of the cover page and a dividing page after the questionnaire. The stopwatch used in the experiment was an iPhone stopwatch application. Word lists were divided into two lists. List A – related words: attic, roof, walls, window, door, gate, porch, welcome mat, lawn, chimney, garage, driveway, mailbox, gutters, shed, patio, garden, screen, sprinkler, pool. List B – unrelated words: shoe, bus, unicorn, college, blue, lemon, radio, football, ice cream, lipstick, ruler, bullet, tile, Africa, model, senator, laptop, cargo, frog, tomato. A blank answer sheet was placed behind each word list. There was the same questionnaire for all participants placed in between the two word lists as a “mental break”. A green divider page was placed behind the questionnaire for monitoring purposes. The questionnaire was designed to collect demographic data, as well as data pertaining to secondary variables including sleep, caffeine consumption and nutrition. Procedure In this experiment each participant was shown a participant consent form. The participants were read the consent form aloud while one researcher walked around showing a copy. The experiment packets were already placed in front of each seat before the participants walked in to the experiment room. The packet contained two word lists, answer sheets, and questionnaire. The participants were tested in two separate groups, Group A with List A – related words first, then List B – unrelated words second. Group B with List B – unrelated words first, then List A – related words second. The participants were given one minute to study the first list of words, List A or List B; then another minute to recall the list on a blank sheet of white paper. Following the first list recall, the participants were allowed one minute to answer a research specific questionnaire. Next, the participants were asked to memorize the second list of words, List B or List A for one minute, and then another minute to recall them on the next sheet of white paper. When the participants completed his or her second word list they waited until final time was called. The purpose of the study was briefly read to them, and a formal debrief was emailed to each participant by the end of the day. The participants were then dismissed. This experiment was completed in 10 minutes. Results In the experiment each participant had higher number of words recalled in the second list regardless of list order suggesting a practice effect. Due to the condition, we only analyzed the results of the second test as the dependent variable and consider the first test take a practice test. We hypothesize the short term memory recall of a list containing specifically related words will be more accurate than the short term memory recall of a list of containing unrelated words. There was no significant difference in the scores for the number correct in the first group who had the AB packet (M= 11.10 SD= 2.808) compared to the second group who had the BA packet (M= 10.50 SD 2.888); t(95)= -1.041=, p = .301, CI [-1.750, .546]. A bi-variant correlation was conducted to compare amount of sleep and number correct in second test taken. There was no correlation in the amount of sleep and total recalled words in the second list (M= 6.227 SD= 1.5344); There was a no correlation between the two variables [r =.076 n = 97, p = .230]. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare caffeine intake and the number of words correct in the second test taken. There was no significant difference in the scores for the number correct in the second test taken compared to caffeine intake (M= 11.79 SD=2.751) compared to those who did not intake caffeine (M=10.64 SD=2.848) t(95)=1.436, p = .168, CI [-.531, 2.825]. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare eating breakfast and the total number of words correct in the second test. There was no significant difference in eating breakfast and numbers of words recalled (M=10.83 SD= 3.354) and not eating breakfast (M=10.78 SD 2.285); t(95)=.099, p = .921, CI [-1.103, 1.219]. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare consumption of sugar and the total number of recalled words in the second list. There was no significant difference in sugar consumption (M=10.86 SD=2.656) not consuming sugar and recalled words (M=10.76 SD=3.021); t(95)=.162, p = .872, CI [-1.052,1.239]. Discussion References Cohen, B.
H. (1963). Recall of categorized words lists. Journal Of Experimental Psychology, 66, 227-234. doi: 10.1037/h0048846 Grundgeiger, T., Bayen, U. J., & Horn, S. S. (2014). Effects of sleep deprivation on prospective memory. Memory, 22, 679-686. doi:10.1080/09658211 Hameleers, P. M., Van Boxtel, M. J., Hogervorst, E., Riedel, W. J., Houx, P. J., Buntinx, F., & Jolles, J. (2000). Habitual caffeine consumption and its relation to memory, attention, planning capacity and psychomotor performance across multiple age groups. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical And Experimental, 15, 573-581. doi:10.1002/hup.218 Hoyland, A., Lawton, C. L., & Dye, L. (2008). Acute effects of macronutrient manipulations on cognitive test performance in healthy young adults: A systematic research review. Neuroscience And Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 72-85. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.05.006 Merritt, P. S., DeLosh, E. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2006). Effects of word frequency on individual-item and serial order retention: Tests of the order-encoding view. Memory & Cognition, 34, 1615-1627.
doi:10.3758/BF03195924
Over the years, memory have been researched and debated, however there are two theories that have explained extensively and are highly recognised by psychologist in the cognitive field of psychology and scientist alike, on how we process experiences and turn them into memories. These theories include the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) Multi-store Model of Memory and Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Phonological Loop Model of Memory. This essay aims to compare, contrast and evaluate these models of memory, with supporting evidence and empirical research.
Marsh, R. L., Cook, G. I., & Hicks, J. L. (2006). The effect of context variability on source memory. Memory & Cognition (Pre-2011), 34(8), 1578-86.
Rasch, B., & Born, J. (2008). Reactivation and consolidation of memory during sleep. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 188-192. doi: 10.1111/j.14678721.2008.00572.x
The procedure is simple. On the computer screen, twelve words are revealed one word at a time in the form of a list. After the last word, a matrix of twelve words is shown. The matrix is a table of twelve words, some of which were on the list, some of which were not. Participants in the task chose which words they believe were on the list, using free recall to select words in any order. A new list begins when participants believe they have all of the correct words from the matrix. The cycle begins again. A list of twelve words are presented, a matrix appears after the twelfth word, and participants select words according to their memory of what was on the list. There are six lists in total, with no practice trials, however there are breaks in between to express the differences in each list.
Kliegl and Lindenberger (1993, pp. 617-637) tested a model for correct recall and intrusions in cued recall of word lists. Intrusions are defined as false responses that were correct in an earlier list. The model assumes three exclusive states for memory traces after encoding; 1) with a list tag-with information about list origin, 2) without list tags, and 3) missing. Across lists, a trace can lose its list tag or it's content.
Research studies established by Herlitz, Nilsson, and Backman prove that sex differences favor women when it comes to episodic memory. In this research experiment these psychologists took about 1,000 applicants, both male and female, between ages of 35 – 80, and asked them to remember a list of words; the study showed that women outperformed men by 25 percent. Coming to the conclusion that, since women were able to recall more words than men they evidently had the better episodic memory. Furthermore this article expands upon this subcategory of memory by describing the two types of tasks involved with it: verbal-production ta... ...
Roediger, H. L. III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803-814
2014). The second study, Cherdieu, et al. (2014) examined whether age worsens sleep-dependent memory consolidation in people. Surprisingly, the researchers found that sleep did not enhance memory in older adults like it does for younger adults. It was also found that younger adults benefited from sleep, whereas forgetting in the older adults were comparable between the sleep and wakefulness group. Lastly, the third study by Schönauer, et al (2015) examined whether sleep after learning, compared to sleep deprivation or day-wake periods, shows a lasting beneficial effect on memory performance. The researchers found that sleep deprivation before recall did not have a lasting effect on performance and that performance was significantly enhanced immediately after intervals of no more than 24 hours. Schönauer, et al (2015) also suggested that the hippocampus serves as a buffer during retention interval, and consolidation occurs during delayed sleep. Also since the mirror-tracing task is non-hippocampal dependent suggest that there are more than one sleep-related memory consolidation process. All three of the articles relate to each other because they examine the role of sleep on memory
Mednick, S. C., Cai, D. J., Kanady, J., Drummond, S. P. A. (2008). Comparing the benefits of caffeine, naps and placebo on verbal, motor and perceptual memory. Behavioral Brain Research, 193(1), 79-86
1. Short-term memory holds memories that were created recently for a short period of time.
Gatlin, Latarcha. (2014, Jan. 12). Caffeine has positive effect on memory, Johns Hopkins researchers say. HUB.
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information. Forgetting occurs constantly across the human population. Since the early times psychologists have tried to determine the causes of forgetting. It is very difficult to study memory since there is no physical exam of the brain that can map memory however; we now have some theories regarding what is remembered. All we can do is measure what we can remember. Memory plays a vital role in our lives. It can dictate our feelings, emotions, and response to environment. There can never be enough studies regarding this matter. This essay will discuss the four theories of forgetting and what we can to to counteract its effects.
Sleep is a reversible, repetitive, and active behavior which plays different roles. These roles include restoration processes, memory consolidation, learning or growth. As argued out by Curcio, Ferrara and De Gennaro (2006), during sleep, neuro-cognitive, psychological, as well as behavioral processes take place. Many individuals sacrifice their sleep with an aim of carrying out extra activities. However, sleep loss has been found to have various negative effects. Some of these effects include impairment in psychomotor, neurocognitive performances, and sleepiness (Curcio et al., 2006). Results from recent studies have demonstrated that sleep plays an integral role in memory consideration and learning processes (Deregnaucourt et al., 2005 & Curcio et al., 2006). This paper will evaluate journals and other accredited sources of information in an effort to review, analyze, critique and synthesize works of other scholars on how sleep affects learning.
The focus on the phonological mental memory was first initiated by Paul Meara (1980). He argued that the organization of words in memory depend on the phonological knowledge of the words in second language acquisition. However, in first language acquisition the memory depends on the semantic knowledge. Mear (1980) conducted a study on lexical performance in fir...
Rasch, Björn, and Jan Born. "About Sleep 's Role in Memory." Physiological Reviews. American Physiological Society, n.d. Web. 06 May 2016.