Lontra candensis, river otters, use their pheromones in a behavior commonly referred to as scent marking. River otters are semi-aquatic, carnivorous mammals that live mainly in inland waterways, ponds, and lakes. They are most well-known for their playful antics, and they can be observed playing in their natural habitats throughout North America.1 Scent marking is a behavior that has been observed in several different animal species, particularly mammals, but for otters it is very strange. Otters are semi-aquatic, and aquatic animals usually do not partake in this behavior. There are many different hypotheses as to why otters demonstrate this behavior. Scent marking is only made possible by the molecule known as pheromones. These are the molecules that animals use for communication. Pheromones are from a subclass of semiochemicals, and this means that they are for use within a single species.2 Only conspecifics will pay attention to these scent marks. Pheromones are classified by their functions, and some examples of common pheromones are sex pheromones and aggregation pheromones. Mammals release their pheromones through specialized secretory glands that are located on their flanks, around their eyes, and from their anus. Pheromone or scent marking is one behavior that is exhibited by many different …show more content…
species of mammals. One thing that scent marking plays a huge role in is territory. The most common reason that animals scent mark is to mark where their territory is so that other animals know to avoid it. It has also been found that males tend to scent mark more than their female counterparts. In the male part of the species, dominant males or territory holders are known to mark more than normal males. Scent marks are very different from other marks for the very reason that they remain even when the animal who left them is far away. One problem that can arise from scent marking is that it requires time and effort to place the marks and then keep them fresh. Another problem is that there are some parasites and predators that can “eavesdrop” on these scent marks.3 Animals also expose themselves to danger when they leave the safety of their homes to investigate new scent marks and/or overmark an intruder’s mark. Like stated before, laying a scent mark is very time consuming which can leave an animal exposed to other animals or predators. Since many different animal species scent mark, much time has been spent observing this behavior. As of right now, however, it is still unclear why animals partake in this behavior. Researchers have found three different hypotheses as to why animals scent mark: the scent fence hypothesis, the scent-matching hypothesis, and the border maintenance hypothesis. The first hypothesis is the scent fence hypothesis. Scent marks can work as a universal “keep out” sign. These marks can keep out certain individuals like adult mates. Studies have shown that even though scent marks are placed around the outside of a territory, intruders usually don’t avoid the marked areas.4 One exception of this is Talpa europea, the European mole. Males of this species tend to avoid the scent marks laid down by other males for one of two reasons: escape is difficult, or the chance of injury in a tunnel is too high.5 Also, scent marking, in some species, may actually make the territory more attractive to intruders. The second hypothesis is the scent matching hypothesis. This hypothesis says that intruders can learn the odor of the scent mark, which in turn allows them to know the scent of the land owner. If an intruder then meets the owner, it can recognize its scent and avoid an unnecessary fight. This hypothesis helps explain abnormal behaviors such as when a territory holder marks its own body with the substances used for scent marking. This makes them available for inspection during a confrontation, and their intruder will then know that this is the owner and they will then leave the territory. The third and final hypothesis is the border maintenance hypothesis. In many species, males prefer to mark along the borders of potential rivals. These marks will then serve as a form of “property lines.”6 These marks are placed to prevent unnecessary, and sometimes dangerous, disputes. Scent marking is a costly and sometimes dangerous behavior, and animals will only scent mark if the benefits are greater than the dangers. Also, because scent marking is so time consuming, animals don’t usually mark their whole territory, just the places that are most likely to be found. They also attempt to make the marks as easy to see as possible. Dogs, for example, choose to leave their scents on objects like lampposts and trees. It has also been observed that territorial animals tend to be more aggressive to animals that are not their neighbors.7 A very common behavior that goes along with scent marking is known as over-marking. This behavior is usually performed after an owner finds an unfamiliar scent in their territory. Over-marking is when the owner lays their scent on top of the stranger’s mark. One of three outcomes could result from this behavior: scent-blending could occur, individual scents may stay distinct, or scent masking may occur. If scent-blending occurs, a group scent may be created. If an individual scent stands out more than all the rest, a type of message center would be created in which animals can advertise their scents to others. If scent masking occurs, the owner is exerting their dominance over their territory and the intruder’s scent is no longer able to be detected. Scent marking isn’t just exhibited in territorial mammals; it is also exhibited in non-territorial mammals as well. Many non-territorial mammals have been observed directly scent marking a female. A male will mark a female to show their dominance and show that the female belongs to him. This behavior will eliminate any competition over that female. Some studies have shown that many female species also use these marks to determine which are the dominant males and, therefore, potential mates.9 As of right now, researchers are still unsure as to why mammals scent mark. Future studies are needed to determine, for sure, why this behavior is exhibited. When it comes to scent marking, river otters do it actively and frequently. Otters are able to exhibit this behavior because they have special scent glands on the backs of each hind leg. Otters, just like all the other members of the weasel family, have highly developed anal scent glands. Under duress, these animals may emit a somewhat musky scent. River otters often mark their scents in areas of high use or traffic. They may mark rolling sites, but the most common place to mark is public latrines that are near foraging areas and dens. Otters prefer to leave their marks in conspicuous locations like rocks and bridges. While scent marking, an otter will paw, scratch, or tread on the area to be marked. Then they will arch their back and shoot a jet of feces or urine onto the area.10 Sometimes, before marking, an otter will build a pile of debris that will then serve as a sort of pedestal. Once an area is marked, other otters will inspect the area and then be prompted to do the same. Areas in high use can soon turn into very large latrines. Traveling otters, or ones that don’t stay in one place, tend to mark rolling sites and latrines as they encounter them. Social otters use latrines as a way of communication.
Male groups are the ones who use these areas as females and their pups tend to stay away from them. When males in a group are separated, they can use these marked areas to easily find each other again. It is hypothesized that these latrines are also a way to communicate the social status of males in a group.11 Also, it has been observed that males have a preference for the scent of a familiar male over the scent of a female. Groups of males tend to have very few sites, but these few sites will be very large. Nonsocial otters, who don’t tend to mark these sites, use them instead as a source of mutual
avoidance. Female river otters, unlike their male counterparts, have been studied using scent marks to defend their territory.12 During the otter breeding season, which lasts from December to April, females tend to actively scent mark. This ensures that these females will gain the attention of potential mates. Females with pups will also keep their dens far away from any scent marks. Scent marking is one of the most common behaviors that many different mammal species have in common. This behavior is made possible through the use of pheromones. North American river otters scent mark just like any other mammal species, however it is very strange for this species to exhibit this behavior. Aquatic animals don’t scent mark, and river otters are semi-aquatic. Many hypotheses are being tested to discover why otters exhibit this behavior.
Most pheromone based perfumes marketed on the internet elicit their effect by affecting one or more gland in the body.
Origin - The Maine Coon is a natural breed, however currently the actual origin of the Main Coon is still underway. The "myth" of the Maine Coon coming about from the mating of raccoon and domestic cat is amongst the most popular. Although this is genetically and scientifically impossible to achieve, it first came about to be believed due to its unique brown raccoon-like markings and big bushy tail. "Maine Shags" were the name given to those that had markings any other color besides the brown coat. Theory of Maine Coons coming about from Viking's bringing these animals over into North America has been one of many popular theories. However, the most common theory is that of Marie Antoinette. Many believe when she tried to escape to North America, but did not succeed, she had left her long-haired cat on board, which then came to North America and bred
The sabertooth cat, also known by its scientific name Smilodon Fatalis, is considered a true form fossil. A fossil is considered a true form fossil when scientists recover fossils of the actual animal or animal part. These bones were oftentimes subjected to physical processes while still on the surface. These processes include heat, cold, wind and rain.
Two dolphins were exposed to a life size mirror for 36 hours over an 11-day period. On the 11th day, the dolphins were marked with white Zinc Oxide. The animals were already habituated with the marking procedure from previous sham marking to Neo Blue. One drawback of the experiment (besides the fact that there was a relatively small sample size) was the fact that the dolphins could feel the Zinc Oxide on their skin, and thus there was also tactile stimulation. All behaviors during the period were video taped and analyzed via a behavioral ethogram.
Deborah L. Duffy, Yuying Hsu, James A. Serpell ,Applied Animal Behavior Science - 1 December 2008 (Vol. 114, Issue 3, Pages 441-460, DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.04.006)
Mutualistic relationships occur between eagles and farmers when farmers begin to plant crops in their fields. When crops are planted, prey are attracted to the field to eat. Bald eagles will surround fields to prepare to eat the prey that come in. The eagle will eat the prey that are coming into the field benefiting it by providing energy to the bird, and the farmer benefits because his crops are protected and have the ability to
Introduction Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are marine mammals capable of spending their entire lives in water. Being carnivorous in nature, they feed on sea urchins, crabs, fishes, mussels and clams. They are referred to as keystone species due to their profound impact on marine ecology. The interaction between sea otters, sea urchins and kelp forests has been studied as a model for the impact of predator-prey interactions on community ecology. Sea otters are keystone predators, whose presence has a far-reaching influence on the marine food web by affecting the populations of sea urchins, which indirectly affects the populations of kelp forests & other marine organisms.
Save the World: Save the sea otters During the 18th and 19th centuries, sea otters were hunted for their luxurious pelts, and by the early 1900s, the species was believed to be extinct in California. (Carswell) Why do we care you ask, well not only are they super cute and eat with their hands. Apparently, a healthy population of sea otters keeps the sea urchin population in check. An unhealthy or small population of sea otters allows the sea urchin’s number to explode thus decimating kelp beds, which is the sea urchin’s food source, and causing a “chain reaction that depletes the food supply for other marine animals consequently causing their decline.
During the 19th century, Jean-Henri Fabre witnessed as the female emperor moth emerged from her cocoon, he placed the moth into a gauzy cage to see what might happen next. In the evening, a swarm of male emperor moths rushed to the cage containing the female emperor moth. Fabre was soon boggled by the phenomenon and so he tried experimenting. When he placed the female moth into a tightly closed container, the male moths were not able to find her, this caused Fabre to conclude that the female moth attracted the male moth through the sense of smell. It took another century before German scientist Adolf Butenandt and his team worked to seek the scent elicited by the female emperor moth to attract the opposite sex. A thousand moths were extracted of chemicals to determine the cause of the phenomenon; it was a chemical known as bombykal. After Butenandt’s discovery, scientist started to find more about the chemicals known as pheromones.
Natural body odor attributes from secretions of sweat, urine, saliva, and genital excretion. Personality traits such as neuroticism, extraversion, and dominance elicit associations with ones body odor. The olfactory system has the ability to learn quickly. With that being said, repeated emotional experiences may create a scent in response to the under or overproduction of secretions making that emotion or trait detectable to others. For example neuroticism is defined as the tendency to experience anxiety, nervousness, fear and easily upset. Emotions that stimulate and sustain the sweat glands customizing ones own personal neurotic aroma.
Scent is part of the five senses that are developed when an infant is still in the mother’s womb. It is processed by a part of the brain that correlates with memory, so at a young age an infant could differentiate who their mother is by scent. Odor is a sign and olfactory condition (Waskul & Vannini, 2008). As someone gets older they begin to develop scents they like and dislike. There are also scents that people find attractive and unattractive. When meeting another individual for the first time a human’s first instinct is to smell them without realizing it. For instance, have you ever sat by someone or hugged someone who smelled good or bad? If so, many people tend to associate the scent with attractiveness or unattractiveness depending on the level of smell. There have been many studies indicating that there is a strong correlation between odor and attractiveness. Although the scent is a universal and an undetectable smell it can influence the level of perceived attractiveness of another person.
4) In some animals, the roles of the genders may be switched. In seahorses, the males are responsible for giving birth and raising the offspring. In this case, males have more at stake and so the males are the “choosier” mate. They choose a female mate based on the female’s characteristics.
Pheromones are natural scents, which play an important role in sexual communication. Animals and humans release masses of biological chemicals in tears, saliva and perspiration. These aromas convey signals relating to mood, status, drive and health to the subconscious awareness of the female. The dominant male will exude more of these biological attractants than his submissive counterpart, consequently he inevitably attracts more females and enjoys more conquests. This philosophy holds well in the animal world, pheromones are consciously detected over considerable distances and serve at times in place of spoken communication. They help animals mark territory, recognize mates, and signal sexual interest. For example, female dogs in heat leave their pheromone and can attract male dogs over a mile away (5).
As humans, after a long day of activity in our busy lives, we tend to sweat. From going to the gym, walking around, and just weather in general, we all have a habit of sweating. Applying deodorant after a morning shower or when we begin to get sweaty or clammy has become second nature for to of us. Coming in many forms such as roll ons, bars, and sprays, deodorant is used to control the production of sweat and underarm odor. As human nature has evolved we have become more conscious about our body odor. In the past when humans lived in caves, they were less concerned with their body odor then we are today. It is theorized by anthropologists that the human stench kept many people from becoming the dinner of some predator’s, because the animals would find something with a less horrific stench to eat. When the ancient Egyptian’s had leisure time away from constructing pyramids, they worked diligently at masking their own stench. Due to the fact that the ancient Egyptians were conscious about their body odor, they invented the perfumed bath and started to apply a generous amount of perfume to their underarms. The ancient Egyptians also used carob, incense, and porridge as their deodorant; while the women applied large globs of scented wax on their heads which would melt throughout the day to help mask the smell. The ancient Greeks bathed and drenched themselves, their clothes, their horses,and even their household pets in perfume. In the Middle Ages, those who were wealthy used perfume to mask their odor while those who were not wealthy enough to afford perfume basked in their own natural fragrance.
...white-tailed deer comes from one of seven glands. Three of these glands are located on the legs. The interdigital glands are between the hooves of all four feet. The metatarsal glands are on the outside of the hind legs and the tarsal glands are on the inside of the hind legs. The tarsal gland is perhaps the most important of the glands found on the leg. This gland consists of a patch of elongated hairs underlain by an area of large sebaceous glands. The sebaceous glands secrete a fatty lipid that adheres to the hairs of the tarsal gland. This area gives off a strong, musky odor. This odor is the result of urine being deposited on these glands and mixed with lipids during a behavior known as rub-urination. During rub-urination, a deer rubs the two tarsal glands together while urinating over them. All deer engage in this rub-urination behavior throughout the year.