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Bordetella pertussis paper
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Pertussis or whooping cough, is an acute contagious respiratory tract infection caused by an aerobic gram negative rod, called Bordetella Pertussis. Pertussis was one of the most common childhood disease in the United States. The outbreak of this disease was first noticed in the 16th century. It took another 300 years to isolate the organism and the vaccine for pertussis was developed in the 1940s. There were more than 200,000 cases reported annually, and this was one of the major case of childhood morbidity and mortality, before the availability of vaccination. This disease is still a major problem in different parts of the world, especially in developing and underdeveloped countries.
In the pre-vaccine era, pertussis predominantly affected
Bordetella pertussis is a highly communicable agent and is transmitted person-to-person via airborne droplets or direct contact with discharges from the respiratory mucous membranes of an infected person. This small, gram-negative coccobacillus is non-motile, aerobic and fastidious. B. pertussis colonizes the respiratory tract including the mouth, nose, throat and beginning of the lungs of young children worldwide. The bacteria bind to ciliated cells in the respiratory mucosa by producing adhesions. Filamentous hemagglutinin on the cell surface and pertussis toxin (Ptx) both help the bacteria in binding. Filamentous hemagglutinin binds to the galactose residues on the glycolipid of the ciliated cells. Ptx, in its cell-bound form, binds to the glycolipid lactosylceramide, which is also found on the ciliated cells. Ptx binds to the surface of phagocytes as well, causing phagocytosis of the bacteria. This mechanism may lead to enhanced survival as an intracellular parasite. Adding to its many purposes, Ptx deregulates the host cell adenylate cyclase activity. The A subunit of this AB toxin, affects the G protein responsible for inhibiting adenylate cyclase. This leads to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) creating detrimental metabolic changes in the host cells.
For the disease to occur, Bordetella pertussis evades the host immune system and is disseminate in the lower respiratory tract. Inhaled bacteria droplets then attach to the ciliated epithelial cells in the nasal-pharynx and trachea. It is at this point that Bordetella pertussis produces virulent factors that are classified into two; adhesins and toxins. Adhesins mediate bacterial attachment to the epithelial cells while toxins that mediate the host immune system. Adhesins include; filamentous haemagglutinin, fimbriae and pertactin while toxins include pertussis toxin, tracheal cytotoxin and adenylate cyclase toxin(1). To understand the role of these virulence factors in whooping cough disease, a mouse model has been used (2).
Recently high population of unvaccinated children on the West Coast has led to outbreaks of whooping cough and the measles amongst children as discussed in articles by Alexandra Sifferlin and Dan Diamond. Part of what has caused the outbreaks, according Sifferlin, is that unvaccinated children transmitted the diseases to children who are unable to receive vaccinations because of age, illness (particularly autoimmune disorders) and other health conditions). Typically children who are unable to be vaccinated are protected by the concept of herding. Herding, the idea that if most or all people who are healthy enough to receive vaccinations are vaccinated, then those who cannot be vaccinated, are protected from getting
Vaccines have been used to prevent diseases for centuries, and have saved countless lives of children and adults. The smallpox vaccine was invented as early as 1796, and since then the use of vaccines has continued to protect us from countless life threatening diseases such as polio, measles, and pertussis. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2010) assures that vaccines are extensively tested by scientist to make sure they are effective and safe, and must receive the approval of the Food and Drug Administration before being used. “Perhaps the greatest success story in public health is the reduction of infectious diseases due to the use of vaccines” (CDC, 2010). Routine immunization has eliminated smallpox from the globe and led to the near removal of wild polio virus. Vaccines have reduced some preventable infectious diseases to an all-time low, and now few people experience the devastating effects of measles, pertussis, and other illnesses.
According to the Website Medicine Net, Whooping Cough (pertussis) is an acute, highly contagious respiratory infection that is initiated by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. Furthermore, Whooping Cough routinely sways infants and young children but can be stopped by immunization with the pertussis vaccine. Additionally from my research in Seattle Times it states that California had more than 9,000 situations, including 10 deaths. Washington has had 10 times the cases reported in 2011, and so has Wisconsin with almost 2,000 cases this year. although young kids are in much crisis then adults to getting influenced by the Whooping Cough due to not getting the vaccine when enrolling in a middle school or high school. The relationship between the pertussis vaccines and the present outbreak of the Whooping Cough is that in their states health officials are endeavoring to get any person they can vaccinated before the whooping hack disperse and sway more people because it was said that some persons may not be adept to get vaccinated due to having critical allergies, weak immune system from ...
Sarah C.P. Williams, Babies Vulnerable When Mom Waits to Get Whooping Cough Vaccine, My Health News Daily, http://www.myhealthnewsdaily.com/newborns-vulnerable-pertussis-postpartum-vacciene-1979/, October 6, 2011
Polios epidemiology can be broken down into its basic definition, causation, and origin. According to the Healthline website “Polio…is a highly contagious disease caused by a virus that attacks the nervous system”. Polio is most commonly found in children younger than five but can also be found in adults as well.This viral disease is caused by the poliovirus that may come in one of three different forms; all of which are part of the enterovirus genus. This virus is spread through direct person-to-person contact, contact with infected mucus or phlegm from the nose or mouth, and contact with infected feces. There are three types of the polio disease which are subclinical infections, non-paralytic, and paralytic. Subclinical is the most common form and accounts for “approximately 95% of polio cases” (Healthline). Patience with this form of Polio may n...
For example, in China, the measles vaccine consisting of two doses was first introduced in the National Expanded Program on Immunization. The Zhejiang provincial EPI program noticed that measles was beginning to decrease due to the vaccine, while mumps and rubella was still spreading. This is when the MMR vaccine was introduced and implemented. By 2007 the second dose of MV was replaced by the MMR vaccine. Following this development the rate of measles reached a historical low in 2011 due to the vaccine produced by the EPI. Not only did the cases of measles decrease but so did the cases of rubella with the introduction of the combined vaccine (He, n.p.). Additionally, a record 9,120 cases of pertussis were reported in California in 2010 the most since 1947. A study conducted by the American Academy of Pediatrics was done to determine how this disease was spreading. Their results showed that among other factors the large amount of unvaccinated children in one area was a major contributor to the clusters of pertussis. There was a strong correlation between communities with a large number of unvaccinated children and pertussis outbreaks in California. This could have been avoided due to the fact that pertussis is a vaccine-preventable disease. The importance of vaccines can be seen through the results of this study, which show that parents intentionally avoiding the
Throughout 1918 and 1919, influenza spread quickly in three waves killing an estimated 50 million to 100 million people worldwide. With the best-recorded first case having occurred in Fort Riley, the contagious flu spread across military camps around the United States. Due to the world war, the influenza virus was brought over to Europe where it infected people in nearly every country. This disease would end up causing one of the greatest pandemics in human history, but would also catalyze great advancements in science and medicine.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has listed immunizations as the number one greatest public health achievement in the 20th century. This attainment towards the goal of health and safety is a huge success for not only our country but from the global perspective as well. Immunizations help to prevent illness and death from vaccine-preventable diseases. The World Health Organization states that global vaccination coverage has remained consistent for the past few years; for example, the percentage of infants fully vaccinated against diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis has held secure at 83%. Programs for population-wide vaccinations have helped with the annihilation of polio in America since the late 1970’s, the eradication of smallpox, and the control of numerous other infectious diseases in the United States and other parts of the world.
Polio, also known as poliomyelitis, is a contagious disease which was first seen in England in 1789 by Michael Underwood. The first outbreaks were reported in early 19th century and it was first reported in United States in 1843. At first, there were no any treatments found against polio. The epidemics were increasing severely through northern hemisphere. 21,000 cases of paralytic polio were seen in United States in 1952. It took a longer time for polio to be recognized as a major problem in developing countries. As the disease was spreading very faster, first routine immunization was introduced worldwide in 1970s, to control the disease in many developing countries. Polio was eliminated from the western hemisphere in around 1994 because of the widespread vaccination.
Measles Measles is a highly contagious disease. It is caused by an RNA virus that changes constantly. Measles symptoms usually include a bad cough, sneezing, runny nose, red eyes, sensitivity to light, and a very high fever. Red patches with white grain like centers appear along the gum line in the mouth two to four days after the first symptoms show. These patches are called Koplik spots because Henry Koplick first noticed them in 1896.
The discovery of the polio vaccine was an important medical and scientific breakthrough because it saved many lives since the 1950s. In the summer of 1916 the great polio epidemic struck the United states. By the 1950s hundreds of thousands of people had been struck by the poliomyelitis. The highest number of cases occurred in 1953 with over 50,000 people infected with the virus.
Those who choose not to vaccinate their children are endangering the health of those unable to be vaccinated themselves, such as infants, pregnant people, and the immunocompromised, by jeopardizing community immunity. According to vaccine.gov, a federal government website managed by the U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, community immunity or “herd immunity” occurs when “a critical portion of the community is immunized against a contagious disease, most members of the community are protected against that disease because there is little opportunity for an outbreak” (Community Immunity). An infographic featured in an NPR article entitled “How Vaccine Fears Fueled the Resurgence of Preventable Diseases” illustrated the rise in measles cases in Western Europe and of pertussis (whooping cough) cases in the U.S (Doucleff). In the first eight months of 2014, there were eighteen measles outbreaks, and six hundred cases of measles.
In 1918-19 approximately 50 million deaths were a detriment of the Spanish H1N1 virus pandemic; a respiratory virus. According to the World Health Organization, the second Influenza A H1N1 pandemic in 2009 spread to more than 200 countries causing more than 18 000 deaths. Before the World Health Organization had announced the official end of the pandemic in August 2010, in July 2009 the World Health Organization sent out a phase 6 warning that H1N1 could soon be a global pandemic. It is important to recognize that the 2 different outbreaks had different A/H1N1strains effecting the world population; this suggests A/H1N1has a high ability for mutation, severely complicating the human body’s natural immune mechanism of antigenic drift. (Qi-Shi Du et al., 2010)