Nursing Contextual Project

BLOCK ONE CONTEXTUAL PROJECT WORK

TOPIC: RESEARCH AND NURSING RESEARCH.

BY

ROBERT PATIENCE

COURSE: RN-BSN

APPLICATION NUMBER:15432

DATE OF SUBMISSION: JUNE 17TH 2015.

INTRODUCTION.

This contextual project work is on Block one course: Research and nursing research 10 concepts are drawn from module 1-12. Each concept has its personal and social context, and how it is applied in my current nursing practice and available researches..

CONCEPT ONE

This concept is on “Nursing research” from module 1. Nursing research is systematic inquiry, designed to develop trustworthy evidence about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration and informatics.

The vision for nursing research

is driven by the profession’s mandate of society to optimize the health and well-being of population (American Nurses Association, 2003, international council of nurses, 1999).
Nursing research provides the scientific basis for the practice of the profession. Using multiple philosophical and theory-based approaches as well as diverse methodologies, nursing research focuses on the understanding and easement of the symptoms of acute and chronic illness,.
-prevention or delayed onset of disease or disability
- slowing the progression there of
- finding effective approaches to achieve and sustain optimal health.
-The improvement of the clinical settings in which care is provided.(National Institute of Nursing Research, 2003).

1.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Research has become a course in all levels of nursing education, from basic to doctorate level. It is one factor that helps to make the profession gain ground towards autonomy and professionalism.
Although it may not be easy for nursing to experiment with human lives like other scientist do, but utilizing applied and qualitative researches, there is marked changes in the outcome of nursing practice as regard patient care and administration.
There are some limitations to nursing research in the profession such includes.
- Inadequate time in reading journals and participating in conference.
- Geographical location of the hospital where the nurse is working.
- Other profession’s involvement in health care delivery.
- Loss of interest of some nurse in research.
- Inadequate time to partake in research due to the mark load of nurses.

1.2 SOCIAL CONTEXT
The critical societal issues that influence the direction of nursing research usually flow from individual and population- based health determinants, which are multi factorial including.
- Physical environment for work and life
- Behaviors of individuals’ families, and communities.
- Biologic factors including genetic predisposition to health problems.
- Social factors including socioeconomic position and resources.
- Discrimination factors and,
- Availability of social network as well as access to and use of various services ,( Longest ,2002).
Nursing research is guided by several major health policy directives worldwide.

1.3 APPLICATION IN CURRENT JOB.
Administering the current methods of patient care strategy, is a source of good research. In my job, policies and procedures that are derived from scientific based researches by Nurses that are unto research are utilized.
Nurses are encouraged to attend conferences and seminars within and outside the country, to enable everyone abreast with the current practices. Although there is a limit to which we can try some methods while attending to patients with some peculiar diagnosis, some had produced clear results that contribute to speedy recoveries e.g. positioning.

1.4 CURRENT RESEARCH.
Programs of nursing that offer baccalaureate and higher degrees lay the groundwork for the research enterprise by preparing professional nurses capable of using scientific knowledge in their practice and contributing to the new knowledge.
Such programs are committed to teaching and integrating nursing research as well as other relevant research (e.g, biomedical, clinical, health care services, business, public health, and health care policy) into all nursing curricula. Teaching from such a base prepares graduates to evaluate and use evidence appropriately and, with advanced preparation, generate new knowledge for nursing practice.
“Potempa and Tilden, 2004, pointed out that creation of highly dynamic research environments that enables a greater proportion of faculty to excel as scientists, in that the volume and quality of their work has a substantial influence on health care. Such environments are characterized by the following attributes:
- An increasing number of position in which faculty concentrate almost entirely on research,
- Research mentorship and research leadership.
- Balancing of teaching research, and service missions across the school as a whole rather than within individual faculty activities
- Inclusion of students at all educational levels directly in faculty research.

CONCEPT TWO
This concept is form module 2.2, in research and nursing research block. Evidence based practice in nursing.
Evidence –based practice is the conscientious use of current best evidence of making clinical decisions about patient care (Sacheet et.al. 000). Evidence based nursing practice is therefore the process by which nurses make clinical decisions using best available evidence, clinical expertise, and patient preferences in the context of available resources.
The goal of evidence based is to improve the health and safety of patients while also providing care in a cost-effective manner to improve the outcomes for both the patient outcomes for both the patient and the health care system. For proper implementation of evidence-based nursing, the knowledge of the nurse, patient’s preference, and multiple studies of evidence should be collaborated and used in order to produce a appropriate solution to the task at hand.
STEPS OF EVIDENCE-BASED NURSING
1.

Cultivate the spirit of inquiry: an attitude in asking questions about existing practices and challenging such practices.

2. Ask clinical question: using the acronym PICOT

P – PATIENT /POPULATION

I – ISSUE OR INTERVENTION

C – COMPANISION GROUP

O – OUTCOME

T – TIME FRAME.

3. Search for and collect relevant evidence: once result have been found on the intervention, based on PICOT, the research can be rated to determine which provides the strongest level of evidence.

4. Critically Appraise the Evidence: this involves the results of the study being close to the truth as possible, it should be done with the best research method. Also the reliability of the effect of study and giving the same result by another researcher. Finally the relevance in applying the result in patient care.

5. Integrate the Evidence: it is important to integrate the findings with the provider’s expertise and patient’s preferences. Autonomy and decision-making are required from the patient/population.

6. Evaluate outcomes: measure the input of the study with what is expected and its effectiveness in quality care.

7. Disseminate outcomes: finally the information, if positive should be shared for the benefit of others.

2.1 PERSONAL

CONTEXT.
In nursing practice, except for the periods of trainings either in basic registered nursing, specialization and degree program, research is not utilized although there is some degree of evidenced-based nursing practice in the daily practice.
It is somehow difficult for nurses to experiment issues as regard patients because apart from the fact that we belong to a collaborating profession, autonomy is yet to be established.
Nurses have enormous work-load on their jobs, it is sometimes difficult to access the current practices researched. Some do not have the habit of reading, there should first be a desire to knowledge before evidence-based research practice can gain grounds in nursing.
2.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
Supportive leadership, organizational climate and access to resources, have been demonstrated to be associated with evidence –based nursing.
The media plays a major role in communicating these practices to the world, though journals, internet, social networks and webinars, this has made it much easier for nurses to utilize applied, qualitative researches in their work.

2.3. APPLICATION IN CURRENT JOB

Although it is tasking for practicing nurses in patient care delivery to be involved 100% in EBN, based on the barriers most often in one way or the other we are involved in trainings, webinars, conferences that focuses on EBN.
Starting from management of patients with difficult diagnosis, stake-holders meetings are held and from discussion on what best practice should be adopted to achieve a positive outcome Brainstorming is utilized as a result of what had been learnt or observed in other resources.
Bench marking is also done with what is practiced at my current job with what is achievable. We may not experiment on our patients, but collaborating with other health care professionals gives some level of evidence-base practices.
Policies and procedures, standard of practices also guides us in providing quality patient care.
2.4. CURRENT RESEARCH.
Nancy Dickenson- Hazard states, “Nurses have the capacity to serve as caregivers and change agents in creating and implementing community and population-focused health systems.
A survey established by the Honor society of Nursing and completed by registered nurses proved that 69% have only a low to moderate knowledge of evidenced-based practice and half of those that responded did not feel sure of the steps in the process. Some response include:
- Lack of time during their shift
- Lack of appropriate facility
Bridging the gap from research to clinical practice can be accomplished by multiple means, such as be incorporating evidence-based research into an organization’s policies and procedures (raig & smyth, 2002).
Time constraints are inherent in clinical practice, and they are exacerbated by increasing demands for nursing care (raig & smyth, 2002).
A study by “Bostrom et al, 2013” a nurses with a higher education level and academic nurses practice EBN compared with lower qualified ones.

CONCEPT THREE
Concept three is derived from module 2 in research and nursing research,” Ethics in research. This concept will relate ethics in research and nursing.
Issues of ethical behaviors are centrals to health professions. In conducting clinical trials and research projects ethical issues should be taken into consideration. It is unethical for an investigator not to give subjects the best possible treatment.
Just like the code of ethic in nursing (ICN code) which has 4 principal elements that outline the standard of ethical conduct;
- Nurses and people
- Nurses and practice
- Nurses and the profession
- Nurses and co-workers, Also in research there are ethical principals which guides research participants and the study from problem definition through reporting of the study.
DEFINITION.
Ethics in research is the application of moral rules and professional codes of conduct to the collection, analysis, reporting, and publication of information about acceptance of subject’s right to privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent.
A summary of the code of ethics in research are:
- NUREMBERG CODE – 1949
- Voluntary consent of human subjects
- Recognize that the risk must outweigh the expected benefit, and that unnecessary pain and suffering must be avoided.
- Doctors should avoid actions that in juice human patients.

- HELSINKI DECLARATION – 1994 /2000

In 1994, the world medical association (WMA) adopted the declaration of Helsinki that articulates certain ethical principles and guidelines for biomedical research involving human subjects. This was done in response to the need for guidelines more comprehensive than the Nuremberg code provided. This declaration has been amended several times by the WMA since 1964, with the most recent occurring in 2000.
3.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
There is no much difference between research ethics and code of ethics in nursing Hence, Nurses who undergo research studies should not have any issue implementing ethical conduct in their investigations.
Research participants are at risk and may be harmed physically, emotionally spiritually, economically, socially or legally, hence the researcher’s basic responsibility is to protect all participants from harm and while they are participating in an investigation or as a result of the study.
3.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
It is a fundamental responsibility of a researcher to ensure subjects understood the nature of the research study and the implications of partaking in it. The subject has the right to decide whether or not he/she would participate in the project.
The researcher must employ confidentiality and anonymity for all participants. The researcher may need to take permission from regulatory bodies for conducting research investigations, mainly when subjects are human beings there are regulatory bodies in most of the countries which grant permission after considering ethical issues of the study.
3.3. APPLICATION IN CURRENT JOB
Any study to be carried out must be done using the principles of code of ethics in research and in nursing. Permission are sorted for from patients before giving them questionnaires for surveys.

3.4. CURENT RESAERCH
The generation of research evidence is crucial to the provision of safe and effective health and social care. If research is based on a robust design and is conducted in a safe and ethical manner, the process and outcome of knowledge generation can be of benefit to everyone involved.
Two important areas of ethical consideration are rights of human subjects and freedom from harm. Three factors are important regarding the rights of the participants they are:
- Confidentiality
- Anonymity
- Voluntary participation
It can be ensured through an informed consent which clearly explains the study objectives and states the participants right to accept or refuse to participate (Fowler and chevannes 2002.

CONCEPT FOUR
This concept is on the role of Qualitative research. The aim of qualitative research may vary with his or her disciplinary background, such as psychologist seeking together on in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.
Qualitative research also known as interpretative research. By definition it is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live. It is also the investigation of phenomena, typically in an indepth and holistic fashion, through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design. In qualitative research, data are gathered such that they can be analyzed through informed judgment. Qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when or “who”.
Qualitative methods are often part or survey methodology, including telephone surveys and consumer satisfaction surveys.
There are several different approaches use in qualitative method, they are:
- Basic/ generic/ pragmatic qualitative research
- Ethnographic or ethno methodology of the people
- Grounded theory
- Phenomenology - describes subjective reality of an extent.

4.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Qualitative research occurs in our daily life, stating from when we wake up in the money with this in maid one would understand the principle of qualitative research in a study.
In a research study, the qualitative method gives a broad exploratory aim that provides focus for study. It is also needful in exploring health / illness related experiences or groups where much knowledge is required.
In this research method, the research is an instrument for data collection. It is a less structural approach for research.

4.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
The purpose of phenomenological research is to described specific phenomena of interest as they are lived and experienced by individual. The focus of phenomenological studies is on understanding what an experience means within the context of people’s lives.
In selecting sample for qualitative research the subjects must have had experiences regarding the particular phenomena to be study.
Researchers use the grounded theory design when they are interested in phenomena involving the social process is underlying human experiences and behavior. For example “ How do student feel after failing an examination”? in this case students, teachers guardians and parents would be interviewed.
Also researchers use ethnography as a research design when seeking for a deeper understanding or description of a specific culture, group or community, here the researcher is immersed into the study phenomena.
Lastly historical method is use in qualitative research, to examine social phenomena by studying their historical context or their past.
4.3. CURRENT JOB APPLICATION
Outside a research study, the knowledge of qualitative research has helped in the patient /client at the point of entry, before making diagnoses.
Also with EBNP principle, patient reference is not left out in their care plan with enthnography, the culture and believers of individuals are given utmost concern in their management throughout their stay in the hospital.
4.4 CURRENT RESEARCH
In 1970, many leading journals began to publish qualitative research articles and several new journals emerged which published only qualitative research studies and articles about qualitative research methods.Between ,1980 – 1990, the new qualitative research journals became more multidisciplinary in focus moving beyond qualitative research’s traditional disciplinary roots of anthropology, sociology and philosophy.
The selection of a research design begins with the research question and the phenomena being studied.

CONCEPT FIVE
This concept is on module 8, sub-topic “theory” in research and nursing research block.
The purpose of science concerns the expansion of knowledge, the discovery of truth and to make predictions. Theory helps the researcher achieve this purpose.

DEFINITION
Theory is a set of interpretative assumptions, principles or propositions that helps explain or guide action. (young,Taylor) it is also a set of interrelated concepts that structure a systemic view of phenomena for the purpose of explaining or predicting outcomes.
Nursing theories are sets of concept definition, relationships and assumptions or propositions derived from nursing models or from other disciplines and project a purposive, systematic view of phenomena by designing specific inter-relationship among concepts for the purpose of describing, explaning, predicting or prescribing .
When doing research, there are theories that are used to obtain information. In general four of the theories are:
- Inductive
- Grounded
- Deductive
- Axiomatic
5.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Theory and research are comptemporary. Research results are being accumulated progressively in regard to theory or to other research. In nursing there are theorists that have contributed meaningfully to the profession on whose basic we are functioning in ever unique roles, such theorist include;
- Florence nightingale
- Virginia Anderson
- Dorothea Orem
- Imogene kings
- Abraham Maslow etc.
5.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
Theorist can be utilized by the practitioner to guide and improve practices theories must be consist ant with other validated theories, laws and principles but will leave open unanswered questions that need t o be investigated.
5.3. APPLICATION IN CURRENT JOB
Theories have helped in nursing practice to make good predictions and help in explaining phenomena.
5.4. CURRENT RESEARCH
Nursing profession required knowledge advancement so as to achieve objectives of the set goals. There is development of new trend that promote changes. Theories other than those propounded by Nurse theorist have also been borrowed, to assist nurses develop what has been achieved.
According to Barker, (2009), “knowledge does not innately ‘belong ‘to any field of science. “this, implies that borrowing theories in order to advance knowledge in nursing is allowed. The best approach is to modify these theories so as to help suit the expected setting. (Barker, 2009).
Recently, the relationship between theory and research has received more attention. Research studies that are more or less conceptualized have been published.
A study done to analyze the role of theory in nursing practice research, papers published in six nursing journals between 1986 and 1990 were been studied. It was concluded that, in comparison with earlier analyses, the use of theories increased from 13% to 21%, but the use of nursing theories are not frequent.

CONCEPT SIX
This concept is from module 8 “theories” in research and nursing research block. It is on Dorothea Orem self care model .
According to Meleis” theories can be categorized into:
- Domain concept nursing theory / work
- Categorization based on source and discipline.
So much have been contributed into nursing through research and theories in this concept, that of Dorothea Orem .
The self-care deficit theory proposed by Dorothea Orem is a combination of self care, self-care deficit self care agency and nursing system.
- SELF CARE: activities carried out by the individual to maintain their own health.
- SELF CARE AGENCY : acquired ability to perform the self care and effect by the basic conditioning factors such as age, gender, health care system, family system.
There are three types of self care requisites, universal, developmental and health deviation, whenever there is inadequacy of any requisite, the person will be in need of self care or will have deficit in it.
Nurses meet the self-care needs by acting or doing for, guiding, teaching, supporting or providing the environment to promote patients ability.

6.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Dorothea Orem self care model is handy in rehabilitation and primary care setting. Nurses are required to assign support modalities for each self care requisite which include:
Air, food, water elimination, Activity & Rest, solitude and, social interaction . hazard prevention, promotion of normality . This model has helped nurses generally in rendering care to patient.

6.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
The overall purpose of Orem’s theory is not to view the individual as a whole, but to utilize nursing knowledge to restore and maintain the patient’s optimal health.
Nursing process helps to facilitate the Orem’s self care model.
6.3. APPLICATION IN CURRENT JOB
Many times there are patients admitted with the diagnosIs that impairs their self care requisite. Nurses play a vital role utilizing Orem’s self care model in meeting the goal of the patient and organization. Such roles include:
- Assisted bath
- Assisted or dependent feeding
- Closed monitoring to ascertain the need of the patient

6.4. CURRENT RESEARCH
Nurses, work in life situation with others to bring about the conditions that are beneficial to persons nursed. Nurses must have accurate information and be knowing about existent conditions and circumstances of patients and about emerging changes , this knowledge is the concrete base for nurses development of creative practical insights of what can be done to bring about beneficial relationships or conditions that do not presently exist (Orem, 1995, p. 155).

CONCEPT SEVEN
This concept is on conceptual framework, its use in research and how it can be applied and developed in nursing research.
A conceptual framework may not always be required in a research proposal no economic research shout start without developing one. Conceptual framework (CF) is an explanation of how a researcher sees the different concepts and outcomes of study and its relations with each other. It is a springboard for theory development, it shows the relationship of the stated hypotheses with central factors or key concepts.
Conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts used to make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas. A good conceptual framework capture phenomena in a way that is easy to remember.
Conceptual frameworks are particularly useful as organizing devices in empirical research study .
7.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Overtime, researchers overlook the importance of including conceptual framework in their studies it is very necessary to have in depth knowledge of conceptual framework, because it help[ organize ideas in research studies CF provides the rationale for the predictions of the relationship between variables it is also a basis for future study.
7.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
In nursing, just as theories can be borrowed from other fields framework can also be borrowed to make meaning for nursing research and nursing practice in general. A summary of such frameworks include:
- Maslow’s Hierachy of needs
- Roger’s Diffussion of innovation theory
- Physiologic frameworks e.g Germ theory , infectious disease transmission
- Azjen and fishbein’s theory of reasoned action
- Koliberg’s moral reasoning theory
- Lazaru and folkmans theory of stress and coping.
7.3 . CURRENT JOB APPLICATION
Conceptual models developed in nursing help also in research studies. They include;
- Hildegard Peplau interpersonal relationship model, which is the foundation for interpersonal / therapeutic communication.
- FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, she developed the first nursing theory of itys manipulating the environment in order to make patient available for nature to act upon.
- FAYE ABDELLAH – proposed the problem solving approach with nursing problems relating to the health needs of individuals.
- CALLISTA ROY - the adaptation model for the unified bio-psychosocial system in constant interaction with changing environment.
- BETTY NEUMAN – stress reduction is a goal of system model of nursing practice. Nursing actions are in primary, secondary or tertiary level of prevention
7.4. CURRENT RESEARCH
Conceptual framework encapsulates the research as it sets out the focus and content. It acts as the link between the literature, methodology and the results.
CF can be the focus of standing point of the evaluation of originality in terms of the criteria outlined by Hart (1998).

CONCEPT EIGHT
Concept 8 is on sampling technique what it entails in nursing research and research generally.
By correctly drawing a sample from a specific population, a researcher can analyze the sample and make inferences about population characteristics.
In statistics, quality assurance, and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
The sampling process have several stages:
- Defining the population of concern
- Specifying a sampling frame a set of items or events possible to measure.
- Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or event from the framework
- Determining the sample size
- Implementing the sampling plan
- Sampling and data collection
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
A). PROBABILITY SAMPLING
In this types every unit in the population has a chance of being selected in the sample it includes:
- Simple random sampling
- Systematic sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Cluster or multistage sampling
b). NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Here some elements of the population have no chance of selection ( referred to as out of coverage or under-coverage). It includes:
- Convenience sampling
- Quota sampling
- Purposive sampling
- Snow ball sampling
8.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Researchers should have knowledge of sampling techniques as well as the problem definition of the study. It will be unwise for a researcher doing a study of “knowledge of exclusive breast feeding among working class women to pick on any sampling technique often than that which will give the right sample which is women that are of child bearing age and are working.
Also researchers should not be lazy on picking. The light sample and population for then studies.
8.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
In most qualitative investigation the problem associated with sampling is ever present and needs to be addressed in order to ensure the creditability of research finding and undertaking.
If many samples are taken from the same population, it is unlikely that they will all have characteristics identical with each other or with the population their means will be different.
The significance of the need to understand qualitative sampling and its uses is increasing for several reasons, there is growing consensus about the necessity of complementing standardized data with insight about the contexts and inside perspective on ageing and the elderly in a genealogy study.
Sampling issues are not exclusive to science widespread familiarity with sampling and related issues is indicated by the pervasive population affective for opinion and election polls, surveys of consumer product prices and quality and brief reports news worthy scientific research in mass media.

CURRENT RESEARCH
Choosing a sample is a complicated process that is very important to a research. A study was done in 1970 to know about married women’s believed in their marriage. A research mailed out surveys to a bunch of married women and asked them questions about then marriage only 41% of the people responded, and of those who did 98% said they were dissatisfied in their marriage and 75% said they had or were having extramarital affair.
Sampling problems may be addressed through ensuring representativeness of the sample size to ensure that the sample size for a given study is adequate as well as representative of the universe of research, the research, the research need to ensure that the sample is sufficient so that conclusions drawn from investigation would not be invalidated as a result of intolerable level of sampling error.
Basically, standard error indicates the probability that actual error is not greater than specified confidence internal .

CONCEPT NINE
This concept is on problems of sampling from module 9.3 in research and nursing research block.
Sampling refers to the statistical process of selecting and studying the characteristics of a relating small number of items from a relatively large population of such items, to drawn statistically valid inferences about the characteristics of the entire population.
In research investigations requiring sampling technique, there is bound to be issues that needs to be addressed it is either impossible or costly prohibitive to study all instances of a phenomenon depending on the object of one’s research.
Two major statistical problems in sampling technique,
- SAMPLING BIAS.
In this case, samples are collected in a way that some members of the target population are less likely to be included than others. The results are attributed to the phenomenon being studied rather than the method of sampling.
Types of sampling bias include:
- Selection from a specific real are. Where samples are under/over represented.
- Self selection bias, this occurs when the sample has control over their choice to participate in the study, this may be in correlation with traits that affect the study resulting in the participants not representing
- Pre-screening of trait participants, or advertising for volunteer with in particular groups.
- Exclusion bias, which results from excluding particular groups from the sample
- Healthy user bias hence the study population is likely healthier than the general population
- Berkson’s bias – the study population is selected from a hospital and so is less healthy than the general population
- Overmatching – here the control group is more similar to the cases in regard to explosive than the general population.
The other sampling problem would be discussed in the next concept.

9.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
General problems of research are beyond the statistical problems like the sampling bias. One major factor is whether data can be generalized from a small sample.

9.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
If entire segment of the population are executed from a sample, there are no adjustments that can produce estimates that are representative of the entire population. But if some groups are under-represented,and the degree of can correct bias.

9.3. CURRENT RESEARCH
In the early days of opinion polling the American literary Digest magazine collected over two million postal surveys and predicted that the republican candidate in the U.S. presidential election, Aif London would beat the incubent president, Franklin Roosevelt, by a large margin. This resulted in the exact opposite. The survey represented a sample collected from readers of the magazine, supplemented by records of registered automobile owners and telephone Users .the sample included an over-representation of individuals who were rich, and more likely to vote for the republican candidate. In contrast a poll of only 50,000 citizens selected by George Gallup’s organization successfully predicted the result, leading to the popularity of the Gallup polls.
In 1948 presidential election in the U.S. on the night of election, the Chicago Tribune printed the headline DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN which turned out to be mistaken in the morning the ginning president – elect Harry s, Truman, was photographed ,holding a newspaper bearing this headline. The reason of the mistake was that the editor trusted the results of a phone survey. Survey research was then in its infancy, and few academics realized that a sample of telephone users were not representative of the general population.
Telephones were not wide spend and those who had them tended to be prosperous and have table address in addition, the Gallup poll that the Tribune based its headline of the printing.

CONCEPT 10

This concept is on data collection data collection entails the planning and obtaining of useful information.
Data is a scientific collection of observation. It can be numbers, images, words figures, facts or Ideas . Data has a fundamental role in any research work or study.
A meaningful data is called information .the process of gathering information to address. Critical evaluation questions that were identified earlier in evaluation process is known as data collection.
PRE-DATA COLLECTION STEPS
1. Define the goal and objective
2. Develop operational definition and methodology.
3. Ensure data collection repeatability, reproducibility accuracy, and stability.
The two general types of information are:
DECRIPTIVE
- Project characteristics
- Report of project accomplishment.
- Amount of participation by the target audience
- Policies concerning cost shares
- Rules regarding research
- Demographic data
JUDGEMENTAL INFORMATION.
- Opinions from experts or consultants
- Consumer preference
- Target audience beliefs and values
- Interpretation of laws stakeholders received priorities
- Stake Holders guideline interpretation.
The selections of method to collect data include:
- Resources availability
- Credibility
- Analysis and reporting
- Skill of the research
TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION
1). SELF- REPORT : collected by oral or written interview
2). OBSERVATIONAL
System of recording the appearance frequency or duration of pie-specified behaviors or events.
3). BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURE
This involves measurement of biological function obtained through the use of technology, such as ECG or hemodynamic monitoring.

10.1. PERSONAL CONTEXT
Method of data collection is important to the researcher. In self report method, questionnaires are offered or the researcher have a direct contact the subjects. A researcher can be involved in observational method.
In non-participant observational, the observer does not participate unlike the participative measure.
10.2. SOCIAL CONTEXT
Socially data collection is has some socially implications. Support from the subjects are what will make the method valid, leading to a good research work.
For the purpose of secondary data collection records should be kept properly in organizations, and there should be ethical issues guiding the collection of data.
10.3. APPLICATION IN CURRENT JOB
In nursing practice and research, data collected should be genuine tools for the data collection should have validity and reliability .Records are dept safety for future research purposes.
10.4. CURRENT RESEARCH
In every research work, it is essential to collect factual material or data unknown or untapped. Relevant data that are adequate in quantity and quality should be collected. They should be sufficient reliable and valid.
For the purpose of collecting relevant data for research studies, the researcher needs to select proper instruments.

REFERENCE

E-Books
• http://www.

highered.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/.../839632/SampleChapter1.pdf

• http://blogs.desmoinesregister.com/dmr/wpcontent/themes/twentyfourteen/404.php?q=writing%20empirical%20research%20reports%20ebook

• http://ruangbacafmipa.staff.ub.ac.id/files/2012/02/William_G._Cochran_Sampling_Techniques_Third_EdBookFi.org_.pdf

Links:

• https://www.tcd.ie/wiser/development/seminars/WritinganArticleWISER.ppt

• http://www.who.int/hinari/training/Authorship_Skills_Module_2_How_to_Write_Publish_a_Scientific_Paper_2013_11_.ppt

• https://www.uonbi.ac.ke/fridah_mugo/files/mugo02sampling.pdf

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