Fodor's Functionalism
Fodor begins his article on the mind-body problem with a review of the current theories of dualism and materialism. According to dualism, the mind and body are two separate entities with the body being physical and the mind being nonphysical. If this is the case, though, then there can be no interaction between the two. The mind could not influence anything physical without violating the laws of physics. The materialist theory, on the other hand, states that the mind is not distinct from the physical. In fact, supporters of the materialist theory believe that behavior does not have mental causes. When the materialist theory is split into logical behaviorism and the central-state identity theory, the foundation of functionalism begins to form. Logical behaviorism states that every mental feeling has the same meaning as an if-then statement. For example, instead of saying "Dr. Lux is hungry," one would say "If there was a quart of macadamia brittle nut in the freezer, Dr. Lux would eat it." The central-state identity theory states that a certain mental state equals a certain neurophysiological state. The theory works in a way similar to Berkeley’s representation of objects. Both mental states and objects are a certain collection of perceptions that together identify the particular state or object.
Fodor develops the idea of functionalism by combining certain parts of logical behaviorism and the central-state identity theory. From logical behaviorism, Fodor incorporates the idea that mental processes can be represented by physical if-then statements. As such, behavior and mental causation are no longer distinct and unable to interact. Also, logical behaviorism provides a way for mental causes to interact with other mental causes. This, in turn, may result in a behavioral effect. The last point is also a characteristic of the central-state identity theory. One doctrine of the central-state identity theory is called "token physicalism." Token physicalism states that all mental states that currently exist are neurophysiological. Thus, token physicalism does not place physical restrictions on the type of substance capable of having mental properties. When the points of logical behaviorism and the central-state identity theory, as described here, are combined, functionalism is the result. The theory of functionalism supposes that a m...
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...whether the simulation of mental processes resulting from a computer program are real mental processes?
At the end of chapter two, Searle summarizes his criticism of functionalism in the following way. The mental processes of a mind are caused entirely by processes occurring inside the brain. There is no external cause that determines what a mental process will be. Also, there is a distinction between the identification of symbols and the understanding of what the symbols mean. Computer programs are defined by symbol identification rather than understanding. On the other hand, minds define mental processes by the understanding of what a symbol means. The conclusion leading from this is that computer programs by themselves are not minds and do not have minds. In addition, a mind cannot be the result of running a computer program. Therefore, minds and computer programs are not entities with the same mental state. They are quite different and although they both are capable of input and output interactions, only the mind is capable of truly thinking and understanding. This quality is what distinguishes the mental state of a mind from the systemic state of a digital computer.
Searle's argument delineates what he believes to be the invalidity of the computational paradigm's and artificial intelligence's (AI) view of the human mind. He first distinguishes between strong and weak AI. Searle finds weak AI as a perfectly acceptable investigation in that it uses the computer as a strong tool for studying the mind. This in effect does not observe or formulate any contentions as to the operation of the mind, but is used as another psychological, investigative mechanism. In contrast, strong AI states that the computer can be created so that it actually is the mind. We must first describe what exactly this entails. In order to be the mind, the computer must be able to not only understand, but to have cognitive states. Also, the programs by which the computer operates are the focus of the computational paradigm, and these are the explanations of the mental states. Searle's argument is against the claims of Shank and other computationalists who have created SHRDLU and ELIZA, that their computer programs can (1) be ascribe...
Geographic differences between these two countries were a major factor in determining stability. Mesopotamia rose out of a largely unorganized world c.c. ten thousand B.C. As birthplace of civilization, Mesopotamians had to deduce the best way to become civilized without example or instruction. The first step towards civilization was the transition to hunters and gatherers. Mesopotamians established farms with domesticated animals and seeds of barley and wheat. The fertile-crescent, which rested between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, became the cradle of this young organized civilization. The fertile-crescent didn’t always have enough water to sustain crops. Weather was unpredictable, and the rivers didn’t always produce enough water to irrigate the crops. Alternately, the rivers could flood without any notice causing severe hardships on the people. These calamities were due to the amount of rain or snow fall to the North and South. This precarious way of life contributed greatly to the unstable mentality and economic hardships of the Mesopotamians. A short time after Mesopotamia was form, Egypt began to rise out of th...
Are minds physical things, or are they nonmaterial? If your beliefs and desires are caused by physical events outside of yourself, how can it be true that you act the way you do of your own free will? Are people genuinely moved by the welfare of others, or is all behavior, in reality, selfish? (Sober 203). These are questions relevant to philosophy of the mind and discussed through a variety of arguments. Two of the most important arguments with this discussion are Cartesian dualism and logical behaviorism, both of which argue the philosophy of the mind in two completely different ways. Robert Lane, a professor at the University of West Georgia, define the two as follows: Cartesian dualism is the theory that the mind and body are two totally different things, capable of existing separately, and logical behaviorism is the theory that our talk about beliefs, desires, and pains is not talk about ghostly or physical inner episodes, but instead about actual and potential patterns of behavior. Understanding of the two arguments is essential to interpret the decision making process; although dualism and behaviorism are prominent arguments for the philosophy of the mind, both have their strengths and weaknesses.
Physicalism, or the idea that everything, including the mind, is physical is one of the major groups of theories about how the nature of the mind, alongside dualism and monism. This viewpoint strongly influences many ways in which we interact with our surrounding world, but it is not universally supported. Many objections have been raised to various aspects of the physicalist viewpoint with regards to the mind, due to apparent gaps in its explanatory power. One of these objections is Frank Jackson’s Knowledge Argument. This argument claims to show that even if one has all of the physical information about a situation, they can still lack knowledge about what it’s like to be in that situation. This is a problem for physicalism because physicalism claims that if a person knows everything physical about a situation they should know everything about a situation. There are, however, responses to the Knowledge Argument that patch up physicalism to where the Knowledge Argument no longer holds.
Computers are machines that take syntactical information only and then function based on a program made from syntactical information. They cannot change the function of that program unless formally stated to through more information. That is inherently different from a human mind, in that a computer never takes semantic information into account when it comes to its programming. Searle’s formal argument thus amounts to that brains cause minds. Semantics cannot be derived from syntax alone. Computers are defined by a formal structure, in other words, a syntactical structure. Finally, minds have semantic content. The argument then concludes that the way the mind functions in the brain cannot be likened to running a program in a computer, and programs themselves are insufficient to give a system thought. (Searle, p.682) In conclusion, a computer cannot think and the view of strong AI is false. Further evidence for this argument is provided in Searle’s Chinese Room thought-experiment. The Chinese Room states that I, who does not know Chinese, am locked in a room that has several baskets filled with Chinese symbols. Also in that room is a rulebook that specifies the various manipulations of the symbols purely based on their syntax, not their semantics. For example, a rule might say move the squiggly
Although, Mesopotamia is a specific region, which prospered, it possessed numerous city-states, which were self-governed and encountered many tribulations, making Mesopotamia less centralized. Egypt, however, emphasized a strong central authority, as the bureaucrat’s kept track of land and they imposed taxes in order to support construction and the army. Likewise to Mesopotamia, Egypt also portrayed the king as a god sent to earth in order to maintain property for the civilization. Mesopotamia considered merchants within their society to be essentially imperative in order to trade widely with foreign regions. On the other hand, Egypt’s foreign policy was essentially isolationist; therefore they identified any foreigners to be as enemies, but they still valued foreign resources. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia possessed resources, which they traded extensively, which was bronze and papyrus, as this was highly demanded throughout foreign nations. Moreover, the Mesopotamians viewed their gods negatively based upon the obstacles they encountered because of their environment, as they believed that their gods were associated with forces of nature. In spite of this, Egypt also believed that their gods were associated with the forces of nature, however, the outlook towards their gods was positive as their environment was reliable. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Mesopotamia resulted in frequent floods and droughts, while the Nile River regularly flooded the crops of Egypt. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians significantly valued their religious practices and beliefs, which was depicted in their art and architecture. Thus, even though the Mesopotamians and Egyptians settled during the River Valley civilizations period, they both possess distinct aspects, as well as certain
The mental (a) and computational processes (c) are the similar in that they do the same job, and both occur internally. They could be analogised to a heart and a pacemaker.
When the mind’s need of rest is not met, it accumulates “sleep debt” that cannot be fixed by a single sleep period. “The brain keeps an accurate count of sleep debt for at least two weeks” (Myers, DeWall 107). Many college students experience sleep deprivation which results in fatigue during the day. Whether or not it’s because of roommates, or your own habits, sleep deprivation is a problem. Although sleep is often overlooked and not considered a significant event--since it should normally occur every day--it is a necessity for all humans as well as animals. “It is said that young animals can go longer without food than sleep” (Johnson 88). This statement shows just how important of a role sleep is in life. “Approximately 70% of college students report disturbances in sleep including poor sleep quality, insufficient sleep, and irregular sleep patterns” (DeMartini, Fucito 1164). Most of the time college students experience difficulties with sleep because of their varying schedules. On the weekdays, students will sleep between classes, and stay up late trying to get work done. On the weekends, they stay up late and wake later in the day. “According to the National Sleep Foundation, 59% of adults 18 to 29 years of age describe themselves as night-owls” (Gaultney 91). Our bodies are synchronized with the 24-hour cycle due to the circadian rhythm (Myers, DeWall 100). If students cannot fall asleep early because their “biological clock” is messed up due to stress or other reasons, they cannot get enough sleep by the time the morning comes. Research has shown that typically people who get up earlier perform better in school, have more initiative and are less likely to be depressed (Myers, DeWall 101). Other factors of sleep deprivation could fall into the social category. College students tend to like to enjoy life, and party. This is something a college student can
Cognitive processes are the unseen systems used by our minds to complete tasks such as solving problems, recognising an object, or learning a language. These unseen mental processes take place in the brain, which is a complex piece of equipment often compared to a computer. When the internal workings of a computer are exposed, all that we see are microchips, circuit boards, hard drives and other assorted pieces, which, all work and ...
In order to function normally, “adequate sleep is a biological necessity” (Austin 34). College is a transition for many students, and without prioritizing many can become sleep deprived. There are various reasons that college students could become deprived of sleep. Reasons include loud roommates, sororities/fraternities, late night jobs, and procrastination. Additionally, a student could be struggling financially or academically, and this could be possible causes for keeping one up late at night. Little to no sleep could affect how young adults function leading to multiple effects. Depression can be a result of not getting enough rest, and the “longer this
Without sleep humans would struggle more than a teenager in high school. Sleep is a fundamental part of human life. Sleep helps the human body remain in homeostasis, or maintaining stability. Highschoolers are notorious for falling asleep in class, right? Well actually teenagers have different sleep schedule than other adults. In fact, if the groups are aggregated into ages, not all of the groups are not receiving the amount of sleep that the groups should be. But there are ways to better a sleep schedule. The people that don’t receive enough sleep and don’t want to fall victim the ailments of sleep deprivation should adhere to these rules. Sleep is one of the most important parts of our lives and we need to understand how to get a good amount.
Functionalism is a materialist stance in the philosophy of mind that argues that mental states are purely functional, and thus categorized by their input and output associations and causes, rather than by the physical makeup that constitutes its parts. In this manner, functionalism argues that as long as something operates as a conscious entity, then it is conscious. Block describes functionalism, discusses its inherent dilemmas, and then discusses a more scientifically-driven counter solution called psychofunctionalism and its failings as well. Although Block’s assertions are cogent and well-presented, the psychofunctionalist is able to provide counterarguments to support his viewpoint against Block’s criticisms. I shall argue that though both concepts are not without issue, functionalism appears to satisfy a more acceptable description that philosophers can admit over psychofunctionalism’s chauvinistic disposition that attempts to limit consciousness only to the human race.
There are many criticisms of functionalism and their theories: Ø Functionalist ideas almost portray humans as being autonomous and that only socialisation determines our lives. They do not really see humans as the unpredictable creatures they are, not possible to stray away from the predictable ideas that functionalists have of people. Too much stress is placed on harmony and the potential for conflict and its affects are generally ignored. Ø There is no recognition of difference by class, region or ethnic group. The functionalist picture is simply reflective of happy middle-class American families.
But, “human persons have an ‘inner’ dimension that is just as important as the ‘outer’ embodiment” (Cortez, 71). The “inner” element cannot be wholly explained by the “outer” embodiment, but it does give rise to inimitable facets of the human life, such as human dignity and personal identity. The mind-body problem entails two theories, dualism and physicalism. Dualism contends that distinct mental and physical realms exist, and they both must be taken into account. Its counterpart (weak) physicalism views the human as being completely bodily and physical, encompassing no non-physical, or spiritual, substances.
Sleep is an important factor of health. It is recommended to get eight hours of sleep a night (“sleep awareness”). Sleeping less than seven hours can increase the risk for diseases like obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease and depression (“sleep awareness”). Some of the consequences of not getting the appropriate amount of sleep are impaired memory, depression, decreased immune response, fatigue and increased pain (“stages of sleep”).