As Western news continues to report on extremist Islam, it becomes necessary to inquire whether a mutual effort to understand opposing sides or a duty to intervene is the best way to create harmonious cross-cultural interactions in the end. Philosophy professor Kwame Anthony Appiah generally argues in favor of cosmopolitanism, which states that people should care about all other human beings and try to understand them. He also presents fundamentalism as an opponent of cosmopolitanism and claims there exist cultural practices that cosmopolitan thinkers do not have to tolerate. Finding the line between practices that cosmopolitans can try and understand and one that could be deemed immoral can be very difficult using Appiah’s thinking. Clifford …show more content…
Geertz’s “Religion as a Cultural System” can be applied to help define religion and explore whether cosmopolitanism can itself be defined in terms of a cultural practice. Jocelyne Cesari, in “Global Islam: Between Fundamentalism and Cosmopolitanism,” discusses modern day Islam and its various viewpoints on those outside of the religion. This real life example of fundamentalist Islam – focusing on the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) – shows how it conflicts with cosmopolitanism and illustrate that the issue can be even more complex than Appiah presents. The idea of cosmopolitanism suggests that people should care about all other human beings across cultural and societal boundaries and seek to learn from differences. Fundamentalism – and fundamentalist religions in particular – many times supports total universality of their beliefs, and occasionally uses extreme or harmful means to achieve this end. Where cosmopolitanism is “universality plus difference” (142), fundamentalism does not allow for understanding of differences to exist. In terms for fundamentalist Islam, Jocelyne Cesari, professor of Islam and World Politics, explains that a popular view of fundamentalism is that it is “the response of discontented groups to the process of secularization, urbanization and de-traditionalization” (50), but while this perspective explains part of fundamentalist Islam, it fails to recognize Islam that combines with other ideas and religions, and another Islam that does not necessarily wish to have the religion universally, but does not want to learn from other cultures either. These two views on fundamentalism and their tension with cosmopolitanism asks cosmopolitan thinkers to explore the point at which fundamentalist ideals become morally deficient and counter-cosmopolitan. From my perspective, this question becomes so difficult to answer that it brings up an additional inquiry about the value of cosmopolitanism as an ideal. If only one side in a cross-national or cross-cultural debate is willing to engage in a cosmopolitan form of understanding, will anything be accomplished? Or do both sides need to adopt this type of thinking? In order to cultivate this type of thinking, education could be used as an effective method. Appiah in his writing “Education for Global Citizenship” discusses this idea of cosmopolitanism in the context of education.
He first defines cosmopolitanism, and then moves to discuss the role of formal education in societies, saying that it is “only a small part of our socialization – the process by which our society shapes our ideas, our habits, our practices”(139). The reality is that very little is learned from formal education in comparison to the socialization of our cultures over a long period of time. Each society has different social rules, languages, and even belief sets that may not be taught in a classroom, but are undoubtedly learned and put into practice. This socialization has a huge impact on how people in a particular culture view the rest of the world, which is why Appiah claims that cosmopolitanism and engaging in discussion over differences is essential to cooperation. The goal of cosmopolitanism is not to criticize differences or to simply “agree to disagree,” but rather fully understand why the opposing side believes what they do. This is difficult to accomplish across countries, thus Appiah suggests we should be “encouraging young people to go abroad and work and study with young people in other nations, and inviting young people of other nations to study here” (142). Appiah considers that cross-cultural educational experiences will be a valuable aspect of the socialization process, making it easier to embrace differences rather than change them as fundamentalism aims to do. The author discusses “the fundamentalist challenge” (145) in claiming that it very distinctly opposes cosmopolitanism and calls for an extreme universalism. He eventually resolves to say that there is no reason that fundamentalist religions and their beliefs cannot also be cosmopolitan, it is just a matter of proper education with consideration of differences in
beliefs. Because cosmopolitanism aims to respect things that matter to other human beings, it must consider religions. There are many different ways to identify a religion as opposed to a philosophical idea, but Clifford Geertz attempts to define religion as a cultural system. In this sense, cosmopolitanism itself may be a cultural system as well. Geertz defines religion as (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic (19). In real world applications of cosmopolitanism, differences are to be comprehended with a great deal of discourse and understanding between both sides. One of the biggest challenges in achieving this type of world that Professor Kwame Anthony Appiah seeks is fundamentalism. Fundamentalist religions, defined with Appiah’s ideas, want an extreme universality that does not leave room for differences. In this case, is it beneficial at all for a cosmopolitan to engage in discourse with a fundamentalist? For example, if a country with ideals founded in cosmopolitanism were to approach a fundamentalist leader, responsible for the deaths of thousands in hope of a resolution, it is my opinion that very little progress would be made. The more stubborn side may even exploit the good intentions of cosmopolitanism. Both sides would need to be willing to understand the other even in some small degree for the caring, almost Utopian world that Appiah strives for. This again brings up the value of cosmopolitanism. The way I view Appiah’s views combined with Cesari’s examples of cosmopolitan and fundamentalist Islam, cosmopolitanism may not be the most practical aim on a worldwide scale, but it is an ideal that is valuable and worth making a goal for many nations or cultures. Recently, the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) has emerged as a major entity in fundamentalist Islam. What started as a barely active offshoot of the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) has become a huge cultural and political force in Iraq and Syria responsible for many terrorist attacks and deaths. ISIS aims to spread their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam while claiming territorial gains in the area around Iraq. Their influence extends to many parts of the world as well.. Even though ISIS is based in the cultural system of Islam as Geertz defines it, the group already possesses and continues to gain political influence. Cesari, when discussing pan-Islamic groups, chooses to disregard groups such as al-Qaeda because of the group’s political power and nature. I would still consider both groups discussed here to be important in a cultural discussion due to their will to spread beliefs founded on a religious or cultural background. Al-Qaeda itself is now condemning ISIS and claims no relationship with the group. This shows that even within fundamentalist groups, there is a large degree of separation. If this kind of division happens within a particular religion’s fundamentalist sect do those outside of it (cosmopolitanism, transnationalism, and fundamentalists of other religions) have to pursue any kind of understanding about the actions of these groups? As aforementioned, I do not see much progress to be made in situation such as this with one cosmopolitan side and one fundamentalist. I am not claiming that cosmopolitanism is a way to justify the actions terrorist groups take to send a message or achieve their goal, but rather acknowledging the complexity of applying cosmopolitanism in current events. The Western world and other societies that are affected by these groups do not always embrace cosmopolitanism themselves, making a resolution to conflict even more difficult. Appiah suggests a cosmopolitan way of thinking should not be used to remedy the problems already present in the world, but instead a way to facilitate communication that prevents new conflicts. It could be possible, as in a group similar to ISIS, that cosmopolitan communication when the group was much less influential and they had not yet engaged in their current conflicts would be beneficial. If this is assumed to be true, then the question becomes what nations, groups, or cultures are worth beginning this type of discourse with. This can be simple to decide based on a long history with another culture, or it could be very difficult because it can be hard to predict which groups will want conflict. From my perspective, I do not think this idea of Appiah’s is any more practical than cosmopolitanism in general. Works Cited Appiah, Kwame Anthony. “Education for Global Citizenship,” chapter 6 of Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Vol. 107, Issue 1, 2008. Cesari, Jocelyne. Global Islam: Between Fundamentalism and Cosmopolitanism. Palgrave MacMillan, 2011. Web. Geertz, Clifford. Religion as a Cultural System. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. London: Fontana Press, 1993. Pp87-125. Print.
In the essay “Don’t Neglect the Little Platoon,” Michael W. McConnell defends the following thesis: Children who have the most respect for other cultures, and the highest attachment to their own, will not learn this through abstract cosmopolitanism. Rather the best form of moral education, is taught through learning to love the good in relationships and small communities. Expanding until you have love for your nation, and from there it is then possible to love the similarities other nations and cultures have to your own.
Being Greek and Irish from the United States, I have made the choice to take Greek folk dance and Irish step dance classes. I have made the choice to attend Greek school. Everyday when I wake up, I get to choose whether or not I want to connect with my culture. I get to feel sincerely tied to my culture while rejoicing in western comforts. Like Appiah, my personal experience has shaped the way I feel about globalization. I see and live in the beauty of a heterogenous society with homogenous communities. I do believe that we should intervene in other countries that infringe on basic human rights, even though they don’t believe they are doing anything wrong. I think that the isolation of homogenous places can be dangerous because without the influx of new thought there is potential for oppressiveness and extremism. I agree that one’s intuition about right and wrong is based more off the conditions in which they have grown up in, and that religion is the biggest factor in the differences between people of different cultures. Different views shape what is considered and delivered by the media as news, who is elected into power, and family values. There is room for change, however. For example we can look to the United States and examine the changing role of women in the 21st century. Women have left the kitchen and the laundry room in exchange
Culture is made up of three main components: ethics, aesthetics, and religion (Lincoln 52). The lines of culture become skewed as it often blends in with political and religious views. In Western Europe during the time of the Reformation, the Church was the central ruler of the society. This meant that religion was not only a cultural view, but also a political one. As time moved on, the Church became less important, but today’s standards still connect religion to culture. This becomes an issue as individuals who are noticeably outside the culture in forms or religion are often judged and looked down upon (Lincoln 56). Due to this outcast it can cause anger to certain religions and culture which can often lead to these acts of violence. With the hate between cultures, religion becomes the justifiable mean on which violence can occur. Many individuals can state that God wants them to make their own religion superior, and one way they can draw attention to their religion is terrorism and other forms of violence. Due to this connection to culture, religion can not be separated into it’s own personal category, as it is forever affected by the changes and culture of the community (Lincoln 57). As time and culture progress, the religion of the community will either change with it, or fight the changes which will often cause conflict. This can be seen in the results of the practice of Jihad, the Reformation and
Molloy, Michael. Experiencing the World's Religions. 5th Edition. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2010. 320-322. Print.
America is full and rich with diverse people, religions and values; they make America great. Just look at Riverside, California, there are over fifty churches of different denominations of Christianity, three synagogues, two temples, and one mosque; all coinciding peacefully in the city (Yellow Pages). Because Riverside is so diverse, religious pluralism and religious tolerance are two steps in making Riverside more connected. The first step is tolerance, a reflex that acknowledges a person will come across people of a different faith. The second step is pluralism, which is a better understanding of a person’s religion as well as the other religions around them. Many believe pluralism is the better of the two, because of the interaction involved and the creation of harmony, but pluralism’s faults are greater than the benefits. Currently religious pluralism is quality America should strive for, but America is not ready for pluralism yet, so religious tolerance is best for the diverse population of America today.
Orientalism as termed by Edward Said is meant to create awareness of a constellation of assumptions that are flawed and underlying Western attitudes towards the Muslim societies. Evidence from his 1978 book “Orientalism”, states that the culture has been of influence and marred with controversy in post colonial studies and other fields of study. Moreover, the scholarship is surrounded by somehow persistent and otherwise subtle prejudice of Eurocentric nature, which is against Islam religion and culture (Windschuttle, 1999). In his book, Said illustrates through arguments, that the long tradition in existence containing romanticized images of Islamic stronghold regions i.e. Middle East, and the Western culture have for a long time served as implicit justifications for the European and American Imperial ambitions. In light of this, Said denounced the practice of influential Arabs who contributed to the internalization of Arabic culture ideas by US and British orientalists. Thus, his hypothesis that Western scholarship on Muslim was historically flawed and essentially continues to misrepresent the reality of Muslim people. In lieu to this, Said quotes that, “So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Muslims and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Therefore, very few details such as human density, the passion of Arab-Muslim life has entered the awareness of even the people whose profession revolve around reporting of the Arab world. Due to this, we have instead a series of crude, essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression” (Said, 1980).
Religion can be viewed from many different perspectives. People throughout the world hold different religious values. One person’s religious value will not match the religious values of another person. Globalization as a whole has affected the way we view the different religions and our feelings towards them; it has moved towards a more symbolic representation of ideologies. Many have come to believe that the west is more superior to others. Martha Crenshaw argues that globalization is a key driver of terrorism because there is a comparison between countries having less access to means of production and others having more access. Furthermore, most religions go against each other’s beliefs and as for Islam; they have neglected the ideologies of the west. In order to understand how religious values are interconnected is through language games; we think in certain ways because of issues of power.
There are two parts to Appiah’s idea of cosmopolitanism: an obligation of concern for others, including those who are not of our own group, and a need for respecting “legitimate difference”. Legitimate differences, for Appiah, are those behaviors and beliefs that accrete around values but are different because of the locality and culture within which they are created. He believes that these differences are desirable, rather than necessarily causing conflict. “Because there are so many human possibilities worth exploring, we neither expect nor desire that every person or every society should converge on a single mode of life” (Appiah: xv). In respecting legitimate difference, we acknowledge that groups have the right to have their own practices and beliefs, though the fact that it is considered a legitimate difference suggests that the difference needs to allow the group to find ways to work with other groups within
Through the novel of Little Bee, I realized that we should know more about ourselves, and the sence of pride of our own culture; standing on the point of a global perspective. Remove prejudice, narrow-minded and limitations, and learn to observe the different nation, different social, different cultural customs, traditional idea. Make us more rational, and have a more comprehensive, more understanding of the human society. We need standing on a higher level to regard ourselves and others. On the whole, all the people are the member of human and the society after all. If both the oppressed and the oppressor can try the best, the oppressor can help the oppressed as unconditional, and the oppressed can identify with their cultural background and self-awareness. Then, I think that cosmopolitanism is not an especially difficult to accomplish.
Kurtz questions whether collective faith is beneficial to nations as a whole. Although not all early socialization is dangerous, one could hopefully see how important it is to assess certain political and religious views in order to change them for the better and promote the welfare of our country as a whole. Examining our preconceived notions about the world around us helps to determine what may be helpful or harmful in advancing as a nation. In order to achieve maximum impact as valuable citizens, voters and consumers in our society it is important to be engaged and well informed on critical, up to date news and politics in our environment and to not solely rely on the words, beliefs or ideals of those close to us.
In Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity, Talal Asad initiates an anthropology of secularism in which he establishes the necessity for anthropologists to study the secular and modern. According to Asad, one should not focus on the mere origins of secularism, whether western or non-western, but instead on how such a political doctrine came into existence. Asad maintains that what is of significance in the study of secularism is that changes in concepts –created by secular subjects— have historically led to changes in practices, power relations and ideas. Asad uses the genealogical method to counter the secularization thesis by showing that through these examined changes of ideas secularism and religion are actually interdependent as opposed to being dichotomous. In looking into the past with the use of genealogy, Asad comes to resemble Max Weber’s very own focus on the internal development of ideas that trigger social change.
CHANDRA, ABHIMANYU. "Review: The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid." The Yale Review of International Studies RSS. N.p., Aug. 2012. Web. 07 Apr. 2014.
During a class discussion of the Sudanese Civil War, a student attending the class who is of Southern Sudanese nationality spoke-out about his hatred for all Islamic people which greatly offended a number of other students in the classroom, one of which is of Afghan decent, and a practicing Muslim. The teacher and some students chimed in with various degrees of opinions and attempted too reason in a just manor, but the Southern Sudane...
Religious Fundamentalism is not a modern phenomenon, although, it has received a rise in the late twentieth century. It occurs differently in different parts of the world but arises in societies that are deeply troubled or going through a crisis (Heywood, 2012, p. 282). The rise in Religious Fundamentalism can be linked to the secularization thesis, which implies that victory of reason over religion follows modernization. Also, the moral protest of faiths such as Islam and Christianity can be linked to the rise of Religious Fundamentalism, as they protest the influence of corruption and pretence that infiltrate their beliefs from the spread of secularization (Heywood, 2012, p. 283). Religious Fundamentalists have followed a traditional political thought process, yet, have embraced a militant style of activity which often can turn violent (Heywood, 2012, p. 291).
Our world is constantly changing and it requires a society that is well versed in understanding the problems deriving from culture differences and tolerance of one another’s beliefs and perceptions. We are dealing with systemic problems in education, economic, government, religion and culture differences.