Background Research
Zap! Sizzle! A bolt of lightning strikes the ocean and sends electric current through the salt water, killing all marine life in the vicinity of the strike. The electric charges zooming through the water instantly electrocute all organisms near the surface. This phenomenon can be explained by understanding atomic particles, solutions and chemical reactions, the basics of electricity, electrolytes, and electrolysis and the electrochemical cells it occurs in.
All objects on Earth are made up of atoms. “Atoms are miniscule units that determine the properties of all matter” (Dobson, 2006, p. 104). An atom is the smallest division of an element that retains all of its properties. The nucleus is the central part of an atom, it is made up of protons and neutrons. Protons have a positive charge while neutrons do not have any charge. The positive charge of the protons causes the nucleus of an atom to have a positive charge. An element’s atomic mass is the number of protons in its nucleus. Surrounding the nucleus is a cloud of subatomic particles called electrons, which have a negative charge. Atoms as a
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whole do not possess a positive or negative charge because they contain an equal amount of protons and electrons. This causes the charges to balance out, leaving behind a neutral atom. Each element on the periodic table has its own number of protons and electrons, which causes each to have its own qualities and properties (Dobson, 2006). Molecules are a group of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. They are the tiniest unit into which an element can be broken, that still retains all of its chemical properties. If an element is divided further, it may differ in composition and will consistently differ from the original substance in chemical properties. This continued fragmentation also breaks the bonds that hold the atoms within a molecule together. The atoms originally bond together to form a molecule, when the electron clouds of neighboring atoms interact with each other and bond (“Molecule”, 2014). Some atoms have a positive or negative charge; these are called ions. An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained one or more of its electrons (Dobson, 2006). Positive and negatively charged ions are released when an electrolyte is dissolved (Bard, 2009). “An electrolyte is a substance that conducts an electric current.”(Bard, 2009, p. 201). Most electrolytes are dissolved into water or another solvent, however some are solids. Solid electrolytes have ions that can carry charges without the addition of an electrolyte. Liquid electrolytes are used in many chemical processes such as electroplating and electrolysis. During these processes the released ions carry electric charges between electrodes that are immersed in the electrolyte solution. The cations (positively charged ions) carry charges toward the cathode, or negatively charged electrode. In contrast, anions (negatively charged ions) carry electric charges to the anode, or positively charged electrode. The strongest electrolytes release many ions and are good conductors of electricity. Weak electrolytes, such as acetic acid, release small quantities of ions and are poor conductors of electricity. An example of a non- electrolyte is sugar. Sugar does not release any ions when dissolved in a solvent and forms a solution that does not conduct electricity. However, salt is a very strong electrolyte and is an excellent conductor of electricity. Electrolytes are often dissolved into a liquid to form electrolyte solutions. Solutions are mixtures at a molecular level. They are always homogenous or uniform throughout. A solution is formed when substances are dissolved into one another. In a solution, a solute is dissolved into a solvent. A solvent is the substance that determines if the solution will be a solid, liquid, or gas. The solvent of a solution is what the solute is dissolved and incorporated into. Brine is an example of a solution where salt is the solute and water is the solvent. “Solutions are formed because the molecules of the solute are attracted to the molecules of the solvent.” (“Solution, 2014). The matter in a solution van be in any state; solid, liquid or gas. The molecular structure of a solute affects its solubility into a solvent. Atoms alone are stable, however, when atoms are near each other, they can react in many different ways. They often link together in various patterns and combinations through chemical bonding. This bonding together of neighboring atoms creates compounds. The two strongest types of chemical bonds are ionic and covalent bonds. In covalent bonds, each atom shares an electron with another atom almost equally. An ionic bond is formed when one atom exerts considerable force over another atom’s electron, while the second atom endeavors to surrender its electron. Disassociation energy is the amount of energy necessary to break a bond. If great amounts of energy are required to break a bond then it is considered to be a very durable bond. Most ionic bonds are stronger then covalent bonds. The strength of a bond depends mostly on its properties. Some atoms appear to want to increase their electron density, while others seem to want to reduce their electron density (Summers, 2013). Compounds are any substance composed of the same type of molecule. It consists of two or more chemical elements at an atomic level. Elements are pure substances, and compounds are a combination of multiple elements (Zumdahl, 2014). Chemical reactions occur when substances undergo chemical changes in order to form new substances. A chemical reaction requires reactants, which cause products. Reactants are substances or molecules that participate in chemical reactions. Products are substances that form as the result of a chemical reaction. When a chemical reaction occurs it creates chemical energy, which can come in the form of heat. Chemical energy is the energy released when a chemical compound reacts to produce a new compound. There are two main types of chemical reactions; exothermic and endothermic reactions. An exothermic reaction releases heat into its surroundings, and causes the surroundings’ temperature to increase. Combustion is an example of an exothermic reaction. Endothermic reactions require heat in order to occur (Padilla, 2006) “In an endothermic reaction, more energy is needed to break bonds than is given off by the formation of new bonds.”(Padilla, 2006, p. 187). Other types of chemical reactions include synthesis and decomposition. Synthesis is a reaction where two or more substances combine to form a new compound. Decomposition occurs when a single substance breaks down to form two simpler substances. (Little bit of a transition into next thought should be added). The oxidation- reduction process is another type of chemical reaction that is responsible for many kinds of chemical change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen atoms or a gain of oxygen atoms in a substance. Reduction is a gain of electrons, a gain of hydrogen atoms or a loss of oxygen atoms. The oxidation-reduction reaction is a complementary process; the oxidation half-reaction produces the electron that is the reactant for the reduction half-reaction. The combination of the two half-reactions creates the whole oxidation-reduction process. An example of a reducing agent is sodium metal. Examples of oxidizing agents include chlorine and fluorine. An example of a reaction caused by the oxidation-reduction process is corrosion. Corrosion is the deterioration of metal, which is caused by the oxidation-reduction process. Bleach is an oxidizing agent that is also a key part in some oxidation-reduction reactions. Another chemical reaction that involves the oxidation-reduction process is electrolysis (Denniston, Topping, Caret, 2001). Electrolysis is a reaction that uses chemical energy to cause nonspontaneous oxidation reduction reactions to occur.
An example of a device that uses electrolysis is a rechargeable battery. Electrolysis consists of an electric current passing through a liquid, causing chemical reactions to occur within the liquid. Another example of electrolysis in the real world is the process of electroplating. In electroplating, chemicals are put in water and through electrolysis he chemicals or compounds in the liquid adhere to the metal being electroplated. Electrolysis can also be used to separate compounds and purify impure substances. Purifying a substances is achieved by separating the desired parts of a substance from the impure or unwanted sections through electrolysis. The process of electrolysis can also change the pH of a solution (Wolfson,
2009). pH is the logarithmic measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution or object. The pH basically means the power of hydrogen in a given item. A neutral pH is considered to be a pH of 7. The pH of pure water is 7; however, most tap water is not completely pure and may be slightly more acidic or basic (Senese, 2010). “The pH of 7 is considered neutral because the concentration of the hydrogen ions is exactly equal to the object or solution’s concentration of hydroxide ions.”(Senese, 2010, pp. 4). One of the uses of measuring pH is to compare the acidities of solutions. The acidities of solutions are only comparable however, is the both have the same solvent. This is because every solvent has its own neutral pH, which may not be the same as the neutral pH of another. For example, if one solution used a solvent with a neutral pH of 7 and another solution used a solvent with a pH of 2, then the acidity or alkalinity of the solutions would not be comparable because one has a neutral base pH and the other has an acid base pH. This causes the two solutions to be acidic or basic in relation to the base pH, which isn’t the same between the two solutions. Another way to describe pH is through hydrogen ion activity rather than concentration. This gives an effective concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, not the exact or true concentration. Also, this description also shows how the ions that surround hydrogen ions can block them and deter their ability to take part in chemical reactions, and thus altering the hydrogen ions. This alteration can cause a change in pH (Senese, 2010). Passing electricity through a solution can also change pH. Electric current is the continuous flow of electric charges through a material. The amount of charge that flows through a wire in a unit of time is the rate of electric current. An ampere (amps) is the unit for the rate of current. The cause of current in an electrical circuit is voltage. Voltage is the difference in potential energy between two locations in a circuit. Circuits require a source of energy to maintain their voltage. This voltage source creates potential difference in circuits, which in turn creates voltage. Voltage between terminals on a circuit causes the movement of charges. Another factor that affects electric current is resistance. Resistance itself is the measure of how challenging it is for charges to move around a material. As the resistance gets higher, the less current there is for a given voltage. The factor that determines resistance is the material that the current is being passed through. Insulators have the highest resistance as opposed to conductors. The voltage source of a circuit basically has to fight against resistance in order to pass charges through the circuit. An example of a voltage source is a battery (Wainwright, 2005). Batteries are essentially made up of several electrochemical cells stacked on top of each other. In a battery, the electrochemical cells are placed with the positive side of one, touching the negative side of another. The total voltage of a battery is the sum of each of the cells’ voltage. These electrochemical cells can come in two main varieties; wet cells and dry cells. In a wet cell, the electrolyte used in the battery is a liquid. An example of a wet cell is a car battery, which uses the liquid electrolyte mix of sulfuric acid and water. A dry cell battery uses an electrolyte paste. One common example of a dry cell is the alkaline battery, this uses the electrolyte paste made of potassium hydroxide. Dry cell batteries are most commonly used for household objects such as in remotes and flashlights (Wainwright, 2005). Voltaic cells are another type of electrochemical cell. It consist of two half-cells. The oxidation half reaction occurs in one half-cell, while the reduction half reaction occurs in the other. The sum of these two half-cell reactions is the overall oxidation-reduction reaction that describes the voltaic cell. This type of cell uses two containers filled with electrolyte solution that are connected to each other by a tube filled with the same electrolyte solution. Voltaic cells use a spontaneous oxidation- reduction reaction. The electrons that are released during the reaction can be used sometimes, to produce an electric current. A simple example of a voltaic cell is the lemon battery, which uses lemon juice as the electrolyte (Denniston, Topping, Caret, 2001). In conclusion, understanding atomic particles can help the comprehension of solutions, chemical reactions, and pH. Knowledge of this can help one understand the basics of electricity, electrolytes, electrolysis and electrochemical cells. An awareness of all these basic building blocks of chemistry, electricity and reactions will help explain how lightning striking the ocean can cause nearby marine life to die of electrocution. An experiment will be conducted to determine the effect of magnesium sulfate concentration on the pH of electrified water in an electrochemical cell.
In "Energy Story" uses an explanation of atoms and tells us the parts of an atom and its structure. In the text it
During this time, it could only be used in a lab with semi-intense supervision. Now, fast forward a few decades and there are D.I.Y. at home kits. The process of Electrophoresis starts with an electric current being run through a gel containing the molecules of interest. The molecules will then travel through the gel in different directions and speeds, based on their size and charge, allowing them to be separated from each other. Dyes, fluorescent tags, and radioactive labels can all enable the molecules on the gel to be seen after they have been separated. Because of these identification markers, they appear as a band across the top of the gel. Electrophoresis can be used for many different things. It is used to identify and study DNA or DNA fragments, and helps us to better understand the molecular components of both living and deceased organisms. Electrophoresis can also be used to test for genes related to specific diseases and life altering diagnoses such as Multiple Sclerosis, Down’s Syndrome, kidney disease, and some types of cancer. Electrophoresis also plays a major role in the testing of antibiotics. It can be used to determine the purity and concentration of one specific type of antibiotic or several general antibiotics at a time. Electrophoresis is also extremely useful in the creation and testing of
In 1803 this theory was finalised and stated that (1) all matter is made up of the smallest possible particles termed atoms, (2) atoms of a given element have unique characteristics and weight, and (3) three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules).
An atom, by definition, is the smallest part of any substance. The atom has three main components that make it up: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are within the nucleus in the center of the atom. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in many orbitals. These orbitals consist of many different shapes, including circular, spiral, and many others. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged. Protons and electrons both have charge of equal magnitude (i.e. 1.602x10-19 coulombs). Neutrons have a neutral charge, and they, along with protons, are the majority of mass in an atom. Electron mass, though, is negligible. When an atom has a neutral charge, it is stable.
Atoms are electrically neutral; the electrons that bear the negative charge are equal in number to the protons in the nucleus
Electrolysis therapy was first developed in 1865, by the eye doctor, in an effort to relieve ingrown eyelashes with minimal scarring. In the mid-90s, laser therapy was introduced, making the hair removal is safer and more convenient than ever.
The Atomic Theory began in roughly 400BC with Democritus in Ancient Greece and is universally believed to be correct today. Democritus who was born in 460 BC and died 370 BC and is known as the father of modern science. Democritus proclaimed that everything is made up of atoms. He continued his theory to say that atoms will always be in motion, between atoms there is empty space, atoms are unbreakable, there are an infinite number of atoms all different sizes and shapes. He also said that iron atoms are solid and strong and have hooks to lock them together, water atoms are smooth and slippery, salt atoms have sharp jagged edges because of its taste and air atoms are light and spiralling.
The theory of quantum mechanics has divided the atom into a number of fundamental sub-atomic particles. Although the physicist has shown that the atom is not a solid indivisible object, he has not been able to find a particle which does possess those qualities. Talk of particles, though, is misleading because the word suggests a material object. This is not the intention for the use of the word in quantum physics. Quantum particles are, instead, representations of the actions and reactions of forces at the sub-atomic level. In fact, physicists are less concerned with the search for a material particle underlying all physical objects and more interested in explaining how nature works. Quantum theory is the means that enables the physicist to express those explanations in a scientific way.
The first particles were sent (4) at 12 pm local time. One hour after starting up,
Electroplating Experiment Aim To find the amount copper gains or loses on the electrodes using different amounts of current each time during electrolysis. How the changing of current affects the electroplating of copper. Introduction Electroplating is generally carried out in order to improve the appearance or corrosion resistance of the surface of a metal by electrodepositing a thin layer of metal ion on it. The metal substrate to be coated is made by the cathode in an electrolytic cell. The cell used in electroplating contains an electrolyte which is usually an aqueous solution containing a reasonably high concentration of an ion of the metal which is to be electroplated on the surface.
Neutralization Experiment AIM:- To investigate how heat is given out in neutralizing sodium hydroxide (NaOH) using different concentrations of Hydrochloric Acid. Background Information:- Substances that neutralize acids are called alkalis. An acid is a substance that forms hydrogen ions (H+ ) when placed in water. It can also be described as a proton donor as it provides H+ ions. An example of an acid is hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) etc.
The next big step in the discovery of the atom was the scientific test that proved the existence of the atom. After the discovery of the atom we had the discovery of subatomic particles. With the discovery of the subatomic particles came the research, which came from experiments that were made to find out more about the subatomic particles. This research is how we uncovered that most of the weight of an atom is from its nucleus. With the gold foil experiment, tested by Ernest Rutherford, he discovered the existence of the positively charged nucleus. He proved this when the experiment was happening, a small fraction of the photons th...
a. It is plasma; Corona discharge; it sparks unlike normal lightning which goes from cloud to ground, Corona discharges happens when there is an imbalance in electrical charge.
Electrolysis Investigation Planning In this investigation, I will assess how changing the electric current in the electrolysis of acidified water affects the rate at which hydrogen gas is produced. The solution to be electrolysed is made up using acid and water. It is of little consequence what acid is used however in this case I will use Sulphuric acid (H2SO4). When H2SO4 is put in water it is dissociated and forms ions: H2SO4 → 2H (2+) + SO4 (2-) Ions are also present from the water in the solution: H2O → H (+) + OH (-) During the electrolysis process, the positive hydrogen ions move towards the cathode and the negative hydroxide and sulphate ions move towards the anode.
Humans these days take electricity for granted. We don’t truly understand what life was like without it. Most young adults will tell you their life does not depend on electricity, but they aren’t fooling anyone. They all know that their life depends on electricity; whether it’s television, their phone, Google, or the lights in their house. We need to stop taking those things for granted and give credit where credit is due. That is why I chose to write about the scientists who contributed to the discovery of electricity, which then helped modern scientists fuel the electricity phenomenons we now have today.