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Essays on Empiricism and the role of the scientific method
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Humans have always been naturally curious. Why are we here? How did life start? What happened at the beginning of time? How does everything work? These are seminal questions that plagued our ancestors and currently plague us. Answering seemingly impossible questions is the role of science, specifically physics, in humanity. At the forefront of the quest to understand everything was Aristotelian physics. While in the future Aristotelian physics would turn out to be completely incorrect, his original ideas and theories were critical for developing modern science as we know it today. However, it was not until humanity accepted the flaws in Aristotelian physics that science made any progress toward finally understanding the universe. While Aristotelian physics was completely wrong in a multitude of ways, it was still needed to form a basis of the modern method of discovery. Furthermore, the majority of theories in the history of science are incorrect at first. Historically, this has been the method of progress in the sciences. From Newton’s theory of Gravitation and Statistical Mechanics to General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics. This cycle of theorizing and rejecting is a necessity to the modern scientific method, a very successful error correcting system. Therefore, both Aristotelian physics and the divorce of Aristotelian physics from science were necessary for humanity to make progress in the sciences. Negative results are still results nonetheless.
Theorizing and hypothesizing are at the heart of the scientific method and are imperative to the progression of science. Understanding how the universe works additionally entails understanding how the universe does not work. Amongst Aristotelian physics were the original theories...
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On the edge of theoretical physics is the study of String Theory, a theory first proposed in the middle of the twentieth century. String Theory was very prominent among the physics community in the late twentieth century, and many physicists were working on experiments and proofs to solidify the theory. However, half a century later and String Theory remains unproven and unverified. Just like Aristotle’s theories, if String Theory results in inaccurate predictions of the universe, it will also need to be eliminated from science in order for science to more fully progress. In order for humanity to further its understanding of nature, it must first establish a theory, realize its errors, and retheorize until a point is reached where no discontinuities exist between the theory and the universe. This will always be true, and still resonates today.
Without theories, scientists’ experiments would yield no significance to the world. Theories are the core of the scientific community; therefore figuring out how to determine which theory prevails amongst the rest is an imperative matter. Kuhn was one of the many bold scientists to attempt to bring forth an explanation for why one theory is accepted over another, as well as the process of how this occurs, known as the Scientific Revolution. Kuhn chooses to refer to a theory as a ‘paradigm’, which encompasses a wide range of definitions such as “a way of doing science in a specific field”, “claims about the world”, “methods of fathering/analyzing data”, “habits of scientific thought and action”, and “a way of seeing the world and interacting with it” (Smith, pg.76). However in this case, we’ll narrow paradigm to have a similar definition to that of a ‘theory’, which is a system of ideas used to explain something; it can also be deemed a model for the scientific community to follow. Kuhn’s explanation of a Scientific Revolution brings to light one major problem—the problem of incommensurability.
Polkinghorne asserts that “scientists are motivated by the desire understand what is happening in the world.”(551, Polkinghorne). As a physicist himself, Polkinghorne understands the desire to understand the world, even shifting careers to become a priest to better his understanding. Science asks how things happen, and does not attempt to answer every question. Questions asking why go ignored, as if they are not necessary to fully understand the world and the life that lives here. Science alone
Scientific discovery brought about as much questioning as it did answers. The Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei invented the improved telescope that gave man the capability to peer into the heavens1. Seeing the universe in this new light caused men to awaken to a new sense of being. Finding that seeing the way our universe was laid out was different than what was originally conceived caused major impact in society. Galileo’s findings caused him to battle with the powerful Catholic Church, a decision that ultimately led to his downfall. Scientific discovery in gravity and the laws
“Millions saw the apple fall, but Newton was the one that asked why.” This quote, once spoken by Bernard Baruch, a famous American philanthropist, illustrates what can happen when people ask the important question of ‘why?’. Isaac Newton knew how the apple fell from the tree, but he wanted to find out why it fell, changing science and physics forever. He is not the only one to inquire about why certain things happen. This subject is also portrayed in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury along with three articles by Benny Hsu, Paul Hirschfield, and DevonJam, respectively. These resources came to the same conclusion. Although you need to know how to do something to do it, it is more important to know why you are doing it because you can do many things
“A new (but yet unproven) theory proposes that all matter—from the page of this book to the skin of a peach—consists of tiny loops of vibrating strings. String (or Superstring) Theory,
Part I: The Edge of Knowledge Chapter 1: Tied Up with Strings This is the introductory section, where the author, Brian Greene, examines the fundamentals of what is currently proven to be true by experimentation in the realm of modern physics. Green goes on to talk more about "The Basic Idea" of string theory. He describes how physicists are aspiring to reach the Theory of Everything, or T.O.E. Some suspect when string theory is completely understood that it might turn out to become the T.O.E.Part II: The Dilemma of Space, Time, and Quanta Chapter 2: Space, Time, and the Eye of the Beholder In the chapter, Greene describes how Albert Einstein solved the paradox about light. In the mid-1800's James Maxwell succeeded in showing that light was actually an electromagnetic wave.
An underlying theme present throughout the series is the possibility that our existence is not the only one. According to current theories in physics, it is entirely possible that our universe is just one of many universes f...
The great Greek thinker Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagirus, a city in ancient Macedonia in northern Greece. At the age of eighteen Aristotle went to Athens to begin his studies at Plato's Academy. He stayed and studied at the Academy for nineteen years and in that time became both a teacher and an independent researcher. After Plato's death in 347 B.C. Aristotle spent twelve years traveling and living in various places around the Aegean Sea. It was during this time that Aristotle was asked by Philip of Macedon to be a private tutor to his son, Alexander. Aristotle privately taught Alexander for three years before he returned to Athens after Philip gained control of the Greek capital. During this period back in Athens Aristotle founded his own school, the Lyceum, where he taught for twelve years. In 323 B.C. Alexander the Great died and the Macedonians lost control of Athens. Aristotle was forced to leave and he died one year later in Chalcis, north of Athens, at the age of 62.
In the book, Jim Holt interviews people from theologists like Richard Swinburne, to philosophers of science such as Adolf Grunbaum, from theoretical physicists like David Deutsch, Regular physicists such as Steven Weinberg, to Platonist’s like Roger Penrose. In my essay, I have chosen to look at the ideas established by the philosopher Adolf Grunbaum as well as the theologist of Swinburne. Jim Holt describes the exchanges between them as an 'intricate metaphysical ping pong match.' Both of these theologists are very ...
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the scientific revolution brought about a slow change in societies’ thinking regarding math, earth science, physics, and astronomy. Early on, new ideas about our universe were not widely accepted, especially from the church. This soon changed due to the hard work and perseverance of several scientists and philosophers who unbeknownst to them brought about an era known as the Enlightenment.
Since its inception, science relied on predictability and order. The true beauty of science was its uncanny ability to find patterns and regularity in seemingly random systems. For centuries the human mind as easily grasped and mastered the concepts of linearity. Physics illustrated the magnificent order to which the natural world obeyed. If there is a God he is indeed mathematical. Until the 19th century Physics explained the processes of the natural world successfully, for the most part. There were still many facets of the universe that were an enigma to physicists. Mathematicians could indeed illustrate patterns in nature but there were many aspects of Mother Nature that remained a mystery to Physicists and Mathematicians alike. Mathematics is an integral part of physics. It provides an order and a guide to thinking; it shows the relationship between many physical phenomenons. The error in mathematics until that point was linearity. “Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.” - Benoit Mandlebrot. Was it not beyond reason that a process, which is dictated by that regularity, could master a world that shows almost no predictability whatsoever? A new science and a new kind of mathematics were developed that could show the universe’s idiosyncrasies. This new amalgam of mathematics and physics takes the order of linearity and shows how it relates to the unpredictability of the world around us. It is called Chaos Theory.
Generally, science is a hotly discussed and vehemently debated topic. It is difficult to achieve consensus in science, considering the fact that ideas are diverse about even science definition, leave alone the true interpretations and meaning of scientific experiments, philosophies and discoveries. However, these arguments, disagreements as well as continuous trials to find a better reasoning, logic and explanation are exactly what have always been driving science progress from art to art form. It is worth noting that, in Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction, the Author-Samir Okasha explore various way of looking at science via the prism of life by citing a variety of scientific experiments, and providing examples from history of science.
The general and widespread acceptance of Sir Isaac Newton’s models and laws may often be taken for granted, but this has not always been so. Throughout history, scientists and philosophers have built on each other’s theories to create improved and often revolutionary models. Although Newton was neither the first nor the last to bring major innovations to society, he was one of the most notable ones; many of his contributions are still in use today. With the formulation of his laws of motion, Sir Isaac Newton contributed to the downfall of Aristotelianism and provided a universal quantitative system for approximating and explaining a wide range of phenomena of space and the physics of motion, revolutionizing the study and understanding of astronomy.
During the seventeenth century, the modern science of physics started to emerge and become a widespread tool used around the world. Many prominent people contributed to the build up of this fascinating field and managed to generally define it as the science of matter and energy and their interactions. However, as we know, physics is much more than that. It explains the world around us in every form imaginable. The study of physics is a fundamental science that helps the advancing knowledge of the natural world, technology and aids in the other sciences and in our economy. Without the field of physics, the world today would be a complete mystery, everything would be different because of the significance physics has on our life as individuals and as a society.
It is said that Aristotle is the father of the biological sciences. Through his exploration of animals, Aristotle used systems of classification and ideas of the scientific method that are the precursors to similar concepts today. Extending this, many would say that Modern Biology stems directly from the ideas and methods of Aristotelian Biology. However, while Modern Biology does follow the basic principles of Aristotle’s scientific method and classification of animals, it extends them beyond Aristotle’s concepts and in doing so begins to depart from an Aristotelian conception of species and the process and purpose of their development into a new scientific schema distant from Aristotle’s original beliefs that is only comparable in its origins.