Ap Human Geography Chapter 1 Summary

Chapter 1

Describe the first humans.

In East Africa, archaeologists have unearthed bones and tools of human ancestors called hominids that go back about five million years ago. Australopithecus, known as “the southern ape”, were an example of hominid creatures whom were short, hairy, and limited in intelligence. They walked upright, had some ability to communicate verbally, and could travel over long distances to obtain particular stone to fashion tools. These tools included choppers, scrapers, and more for food preparations. About one million years later, a new species of hominids that belong to the genus Homo evolved called Homo erectus. Homo erectus possessed a larger brain than the australopithecines and fashioned more advanced tools such as cleavers and handaxes, which were useful in hunting and

protection against predators. In addition, they knew how to tend a fire and were intelligence in language skills that enabled them to communicate complex ideas to each other. They then migrated to north Africa and the Eurasian areas, unlike the Australopithecus.

Explain the emergence of Homo Sapiens.

250,000 years ago, the third human development began with the emergence of Homo sapiens, known as “wise human”. Neanderthal was one type of the Homo sapiens that developed and were found in Europe and the Middle East. They relied on stone tools, were the first early humans to bury their dead, and made clothes from the skins of animals they killed. Homo sapiens sapiens or “wise, wise human” were the first anatomically modern who appeared in Africa 200,000 to 150,000 years ago. Groups of homo sapiens sapiens began to populate the world by moving beyond their hunting ground in a rate of 2 to 3 miles per generation. By 10,000 B.C., homo sapiens sapiens were the only human species left on earth and the Neanderthal became extinct. With each phase of human development, the human brain became more sophisticated, along with advanced communication skills and survival technique. Modern individuals today which include Europeans, Africans, or Australian Aborigines all belong to the same subspecies of human beings.

Describe the hunter-gatherer's life of the Paleolithic Age.

The ability and ways to make tools was a fundamental distinguisher of the human species. Because the earliest tools were made of stone, the early age of human species was called the Paleolithic (“old stone”) Age. Paleolithic people used the hunting and gathering to survive by having a close relationship with the environment and nature. Therefore, they knew exactly which animals and hunt and with plants to eat because they did not yet have the ability to grow crops and raise animals. They lived in small bands of twenty to thirty individuals and became nomadic because they were obligated to follow animal immigration and crop vegetation cycles. Men and women had equal roles and both played a dominant role by the men hunting animals and the women gathering crops. Those who lived in cold climates found shelter in caves, and began the use of fire which enabled an easier way of survival. Although the Paleolithic people did much hard work, evidence shows cave paintings of animals such as lions, oxens, owls, and more. They did not hunt these animals, so scholars suggest they painted these for religious or decorative purposes for joy.

What were the changes of lifestyle during the Neolithic Revolution (c. 10,000- 4,000 B.C.E.)?

At the end of the ice age, significant change in lifestyles occurred in the Neolithic (“new stone”) Revolution around 10,000 B.C.E. One of the changes included the alteration from hunting and gathering to sustenance to producing food by systematic agriculture. This made people have greater control of their environment and enabled them to give up their nomadic ways and begin settled communities. The gradual shift from food-gathering and animal hunting to producing food was called the Mesolithic (“Middle Stone Age”). People began to grow fruits and vegetables and harvest them, while animals were used for both clothing and food. With the new growth of crops, people decided to settle and build communities and homes with the constant supply of food. As a consequence of settling in, the roles of equal dominance between men and women disappeared, and led to men being the dominant one. Men carried the responsibility of working in the fields with the crops and animals, while women played the role of caring for the children and household. The arise of technical development began to arise during 4,000-3,000 B.C.E. in the Neolithic towns, such as writing, weapons and tools, and much more.

Describe the Ancient Civilizations around the world.

Along with the first civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, other individual civilization also developed in other areas of the world. Two major cities between 3000 and 1500 B.C.E. were in the valleys of the Indus River in India that extended hundreds of miles from the coast of the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea were called Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The Harappa was focused on farming but also traded with the Mesopotamians. In addition, there was another river civilization along the Yellow River during the Shang Dynasty that contained a system of irrigation. Scholars believed that civilization only emerged in fertile river valleys, but archaeologists found evidence to a civilization in central Asia. People in this civilization had a different lifestyle which included building mud brick buildings, raising sheep and goat, using a system of irrigation, and a writing system. Another early civilization was discovered in Supe River valley of Peru that contained sophisticated buildings and structures, and a method of irrigation.

What are some possible causes of the development of civilization?

There are many different theories and explanations of the causes of civilization from scholars. There are theories of challenges and response maintains that challenges forced individuals to make efforts that resulted in the rise of civilization. While, some scholars have thought of a material explanation. An example of material explanation was an accumulation of food surpluses. With a surplus of food, labor and development of large communities with bureaucratic organizations were made possible. In areas of food shortage, people had to come together and cooperative to combine their effort to grow food to ensure their survival. Other historians have argued that nonmaterial forces caused the emergence of civilization. With religious being a nonmaterial force, it provided unification and purpose that made such organizations possible. Last, some scholars argue that it is impossible to find the causes of civilization.

How was civilization emerged in Mesopotamia?

The valley between the Tigris and Euphrates River is what Greeks call the land “between the rivers”. The region of land between these rivers was very dry and isolated. Even though the area receives little rain, the layers of silt deposited by the rivers over the years enriched the plains of southern Mesopotamia. During the late spring, the flooding become irregular and chaotic because it depends on the melting of snow. Therefore, farming can only be achieved by a system of irrigation and drainage ditches. This complex system helped control the flow of rivers and the production of crops. The lard-irrigation system made possible an expansion of agriculture. In addition, the abundant amount of food gave way for a civilization of the Mesopotamian civilization.

Describe the city-states of Ancient Mesopotamia.

Sumerians were the first creators of ancient mesopotamian civilization. By 3000 B.C., they created independent cities called city-states, and came to exercise political and economic control. Sumerian cities were surrounded by walls 6 feet high, made of sun-dried bricks from mud bricks. Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy. Therefore, the most prominent building was the temple, dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city made atop a ziggurat. Priests and priestesses cared for the temple and had great power of the people. Sumerians viewed kings as divine in origin and believed they descended from the gods. The armies, the government, the priests and priestesses all aided the king in their rule. The social class in order were the elites, the dependent commoners, the free commoners, and the slaves.

Describe the empires in Mesopotamia.

New conflicts arose as city-states fought others for land and water. Sumerians were left in despair as the cities were burned or sacked. Because Mesopotamia was located on flat land, it was open to invasions such as the Akkadians, north of the Sumerian city-states. They were also called Semitic people based on their language. In 2340 B.C.E., Sargan, leader of the Akkadians, took over the Sumerian city-states and created an empire that took up most of Mesopotamia and lands westward of Mediterranean. By 2100 B.C.E., neighborhood hill people eventually caused the empire to fall. Then, in 1792 B.C., a new empire took control most of Mesopotamia called the Hammurabi, who ruled over the Old Babylonians (Semitic speaking). Hammurabi (1792- 1750 B.C.E.) used methods such as dividing his opponents one by one in order to subdue them. With his conquests of Akkad and Sumer, he named himself “sun of Babylon” and established a new capital at Babylon. During his rule, he built temples, defensive walls, and irrigation canals, encouraged trade, and an economic revival. However after his death, series of kings were unable to keep Hammurabi’s empire united and later fell to new invaders. Hammurabi’s code was greatly influenced by Mesopotamians which included that criminals were punished like “an eye for an eye”.

Describe Mesopotamian culture.

Mesopotamian culture was centered around the gods and goddesses, making this the development of polytheism. They believed when the gods were mad, they caused ferocious floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and oppressive humidity all over. Therefore, the Mesopotamian people worshiped them, and made monuments for them. The Mesopotamians became insecure because they could never predict the gods’ next actions. However, they relieved their anxiety through divination, which was the killing of animals to decipher foretold events and the purpose of gods. Around 3000 B.C., the Sumerians used cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) system of writing that were made by wedge-shaped impressions dried onto tablets. In addition, they were advanced in mathematics, astronomy, and science. They made a number system of 60, and used geometry to measure and construct buildings and fields. In astronomy, the Sumerians used units of 60, charted the constellations, and made a calendar based on twelve lunar months.

How is Ancient Egypt impacted by their geography?

The Nile is a unique river, running thousands of miles north from the heart of Egypt. It created a fertile area several miles wide on both sides of the bank. Even today, people are crowded around the Nile banks. Unlike the Mesopotamian river, the Nile was gradual and not life-threatening. During a flood, a system of irrigation was still necessary, but it did not require massive state intervention like Mesopotamia’s. In addition, Mesopotamia had constant invasions because of their flat land. But, Egypt has natural barriers such as the desert, river, and sea. When the Nile flooded each year, “the fields laugh,” and “people’s faces light up”. Therefore, Egyptians has a secure, happy life, unlike Mesopotamians who were constantly worried.

What were the Old and Middle Kingdoms?

Egypt's history was separated into three periods of time: Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. During the Old Kingdom around 3100 B.C.E. Menes was the first royal dynasty king that united the Upper and Lower Egypt. The Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, south of delta and was an age of prosperity, made visible in the greatest and largest pyramids of Egypt. In addition it contained the third through sixth of Egyptian kings, lasting from 2686 to 2810 B.C.E. The kings, or pharaohs, were divine and were expected to rule according to the Ma’at. Ma’at was a spiritual concept that displayed the ideas of truth, justice, right order, and harmony. After the Old Kingdom collapsed, the Middle Kingdom arose and was often referred to as the Golden age, lasting from 2055 to 1650 B.C.E. A governor, or nomarch, were expected to look over the provinces, or nomes. In addition, there was no longer a rivalry during this stable age between the pharaohs and nomarchs.

Describe the social life and economy in Ancient Egypt.

The Old and Middle Kingdom’s social status were the kings were the upper class that were surrounded by priests and nobles who elaborated in the rituals of life, surrounding the pharaohs. They ran the government and managed their own estate. Therefore, they had much wealth. In theory, the kings owned all the lands, and granted small sections to their subjects. The priests and nobles had larger sections and temple complexes. Most of the people in Egypt worked the land.They were called serfs, or common people that were bound to the land and manage the estates. In addition they paid taxes in the form of crops to the upper class, lived in small villages or towns, and provided military service and forced labor for project estates.

Explain the Egyptian culture.

Egyptian’s construction awed many many of its late conquers. They had no religion because it was an inseparable element to the entire world in which they belonged. Instead, they believed in a great number of gods that were associated with heavenly bodies and therefore were polytheistic. The sun was the key worth of worshipping because it was the source of life. The three main deities were Re, Osiris, and Iris. The greatest achievement in Ancient Egypt was the construction of the pyramids that took place during the Old Kingdom. They were made to honor the dead in which the kings and pharaohs were buried in there. Egyptians believed one had two bodies, a physical and spiritual one called ka. The ka could return if properly mummified and the tomb furnished with earthly objects. Rituals were held to please the gods and goddesses. During the first two dynasties, the Egyptians created writing as hieroglyphics meaning “priest carvings” or “sacred writings”. Yet it was never developed as an alphabet.

Explain the disorder and new order of the New Kingdom.

Around 1650 B.C.E., the Middle Kingdom came to an end by the invasion of Hysko from western Asia. The Egyptians benefited from the Hyksos by learning how to use bronze for farming tools and weapons, and military skills such as horse drawn war chariots. During the New Kingdom, Egypt became the most powerful state in all of Middle East. They showed their massive wealth by building new temples. Hatshepsut (1503 - 1480 B.C.E.) was a famous ruler that set up expeditions, encouraged mining, and fostered agriculture. Amenhotep IV introduced the worship of Aten, the sun disk god which then changed his name into Akhenaten (“servant of Aten”). Because Akhenaten was so focused on changing the religion which ultimately failed, he ignored war affairs that led to the loss of Syria and Palestine. In 1333, the eighteenth dynasty came to an end when Tutankhamun reverted the religion and Thebes to its original. The nineteenth dynasty restored power to Egypt by Rameses II. They managed to take back Palestine, but were unable to have the same borders. Egypt was then dominated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and Macedonians after Alexander the Great.

Describe daily life in Ancient Egypt.

Egyptians had a positive attitude towards daily life and people were usually married young. Although monogamy was a rule, a husband was allowed to have more wives if the first wife was childless. But, the pharaohs were allowed to have harems. The queen was known as the “great wife” with a higher status. Women were respected and handled household duties and educating children. Their property and inheritance remained in their own hands. Some women ran their own business, while others worked in the fields, or became priestesses. Marriages were arranged by parents and the main purpose was to give birth to sons. In many cases however the married couple did love each other. Divorce was allowed, but adultery was forbidden and led to severe punishments.

Describe the spread of Egyptian influence in Nubia.

Egypt impacted many people in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean. Both Crete and Cretan had Egyptian products and that were found there. The African kingdom, Nubia was greatly impacted by Egyptians and is found to have risen before Egypt. Egyptian merchants traveled to Nubia to exchange goods and later became Egyptian tributary. During the end of the second millennium B.C.E., Nubia became the independent state of Kush. Kushite culture was greatly influenced by Egyptian religion, kings in pyramids, and hieroglyphics. Kush developed into a major trading state when they discovered iron ore in a floodplain near the river at Meroe. Meroe later became the capital and supplied goods to Central and East Africa. The donkeys were the transportation, but were later switched to camels.

Describe the new centers of civilization.

Mesopotamia and Egypt are not the only civilizations, but were also many significant developments taking place on the fringes of these civilizations. The late Historians believe the Neolithic people domesticated animals and brought farming on their own. Neolithic people made an outstanding building called the Megalithic (“large stone”). By 6500 and 4000 B.C.E., farming made its way into the Balkan peninsula of Europe, southern France, central Europe, and the coastal regions of central Mediterranean.Radiocarbon dating, how scientists determine the age of objects, shows that they were made before the great pyramids around 4000 B.C. They were placed in either circular patterns or straight lines. In addition, historians believe that Megaliths were not only capable of telling mid-summer and winter sunrises, but also standstills of the moon.

Explain the impact of the nomadic people to the Indo-Europeans.

Nomadic people lived on the fringes of civilization, that depending on hunting and gathering, herding, and a bit of farming. Pastoral nomads overran civilized communities and forged their own empire. The Indo-Europeans were the most important nomadic peoples that spoke languages derived from a single parent tongue such as Greek, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, and the German and Slavic tongues. They were based in modern Iraq and Afghanistan but moved to Europe, India, and western Asia. One group of Indo-Europeans moved into Asia Minor and Anatolia around 1750 B.C.E., came together with the natives to form the Hittite kingdom with the capital at Hattusha. They were of the first Indo-Europeans to make us of iron to construct stronger and cheaper weapons. The Hittites borrowed language, literature, art, and religion from the Mesopotamian and native peoples they subdued. Scholars say that the Hittites transformed the Mesopotamian culture into later civilizations in the Mediterranean area. Although the Hittite became a very powerful kingdom, there were attacks from the Sea Peoples in the west and other aggressive neighboring tribes. And by 1190 B.C.E., the Hittites came to an end. This then led to an area of little kingdoms and city-states, one being the Phoenicians.

Who were the Phoenicians?

The Phoenicians, Semitic-speaking people lived on Palestine along the Mediterranean coast on a narrow band about 120 miles long. After the demise of the Hittites, they expanded the trade that was already the center of their prosperity. The chief cities of Phoenicians was Byblos, Tyre, and Sidon that served as ports. They produced a number of goods for foreign markets and improved their ships that led them to become international sea traders. They charted new routes in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean. They set up many colonies in western Mediterranean that includes Carthage that is on the north coast of Africa. The Phoenicians were best known for their transmitters, instead of pictographs. The twenty-two characters or letters could be used to spell the alphabet and was significant. They passed their alphabet to the Greeks, and then to the Romans, and then to us now. Although they achieved much independently, they eventually fell the the Assyrians and Persians.

Describe the Hebrews or the “children of Israel”.

Another group of Semitic-speaking people were the Hebrews that lived to the south of the Phoenicians. Their monotheism belief in one god later influenced Christianity and Islam and flourished into its own religion. The Hebrew Bible or Old Testament described them as nomadic people and descendents of Abraham, who had migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan, where they became the “Children of Israel.” During the first half of the thirteenth century B.C.E., Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt in “exodus” when they were enslaved by pharaohs who used them as laborers on building projects. Saul was the first king of the Israelites, who initially achieved some success in the ongoing struggle with the Philistines. After his death with this enemy, there was a brief period of anarchy by one of Saul’s lieutenant, David. He reunited the Israelites, defeated the Philistines, changed the settlement based on farming and urban life, and established control over all of Canaan. Jerusalem became the capital of a united kingdom. Later, David’s son Solomon expanded the politial military and extended the trading activities of the Israelites. He is most known for his building project of the Temple in Jerusalem in which the Israelites viewed the Temple as the symbolic center of their religion. After Solomon’s death, Israel divided into two kingdoms, the kingdom of Israel contained ten northern tribes and a capital of Samaria, and the southern kingdom of Judah with two tribes and the original capital. In 722 B.C.E., the Assyrians destroyed Samaria, and deported Hebrews to other parts of the Assyrian Empire and the Hebrews lost their identity when merged with neighboring peoples. However, the southern kingdom of Judah was forced to pay tribute to Assyria, but still was independent as Assyrian power declined. Persians then destroyed the CHaldean kingdom and allowed the people of Judah to return and rebuild their city. However, Alexander the Great in the fourth century took over, but the people of Judah survived and became known as the Jews. Yahweh was their only God, who created the world and everything in it. If they committed a crime, they were punished but would be merciful and peace seeking.

Describe the rise of the new empires- the Assyrian Empire.

Assyria were a group of Semitic-speaking people located on the upper Tigris River, an area that brought both cultural and political contact with southern Mesopotamia. They used iron weapons, developed by the Hittites to establish an empire that included Mesopotamia, parts of Iranian Plateau, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Canaan, and Egypt down to Thebes. Ashurbanipal was one of the strongest Assyrian rulers, but Babylonians greatly resented them and rebelled against it. After his rule, the empire began to disintegrate and fell to the Chaldeans and Medes in 612 B.C.E. The Assyrians developed a strong and effective military that was well organized and disciplined, and included cavalry and horse-drawn war chariots. There was torture to those who rebelled against Assyrian rule. Their language gave the identity to the Assyrians along with their religion. Agriculture formed the principal basis of Assyrian life, but unlike the river valleys in comparison to southern Mesopotamia, Assyrian farms received sufficient moisture from regular rainfall. The Assyrians saw themselves as guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian culture.

Explain the rise of the Persian Empire.

Chaldean Babylonia fell the the Persian in 539 B.C.E., who were an Indo-European-speaking people who lived in southwestern Iran. In 550 B.C.E., Cyrus extended Persian control over the Medes, making Media the first Persian satrapy or province. He was a gentle, good king who was viewed as a “father” because he allowed the Jews to return and rebuild their temples. The empire was divided into 20 satrapies

and each province was ruled by a satrap, a “protector of the kingdom”. The Persian king was not considered a god, but was nevertheless the elect one of the Persian god Ahuramazda. The Persians contributed their most original religion, Zoroastrianism that was born in 660 B.C.E. The policies of Darius widen the gap between the king and his subjects. The Persian empire weakened when the king became extremely greedy with over taxation. The god was believed to be the creator of all things and had qualities that all humans should strive to achieve.

Chapter 2

What was the land of diversity?

India is a land of diversity which shows in its languages and cultures. Hinduism and Buddhism are the world’s two major religions that originated in India and other places. The far north of India are the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges, and are the highest mountains in the world. To the south of the mountains is the rich valley of the Ganges or “holy river”, and to the west is the Indus River. Then, south of the river valleys lies the Deccan, a region of hills and a plateau that extends from the Ganges valley to the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. Inside the plateau is very dry and occupied by lush plains. Off the southeastern coast is the island Sri Lanka and intimately linked with that of its larger neighbor. There are a vast mixture of different peoples including: people speaking Dravidian descended from the Indus River; Aryans descended from the pastoral peoples; and hill peoples who may have been the earliest inhabitants.

Describe Harappan civilization.

Archaeologists discovered the existence of small mudbrick villages that eventually gave rise to Harappan civilization, dating back to more than six thousand years in the lower Indus River valley. Harappa is not a dead civilization, but a part of the living culture today in the Indian subcontinent because it closely resembles the cultures of Mesopotamia and the Nile valley. Harappa was a city of power, surrounded by kiln-dried mud bricks over 40 feet thick and laid out on a rectangular grid. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were divided into large walled neighborhoods, all following the same general plan based on a square courtyard surrounded by rooms. Although Harappan writing has not been deciphered, evidence suggests they were not a centralized monarchy with a theocratic base but a collection of over fifteen hundred towns. There were no stone monuments to tell if there were kings, priests, or military commanders. It was also based on agriculture with the presence of cotton seeds suggesting that they might have been the first to master this useful crop. Along with pottery painting, wheel-turning, and kiln-firing, sculpture was the Harappans’ highest artistic achievement.

Explain lost civilization.

Archaeologists have newly discovered the remnants of a lost culture that goes back at least to the late third millennium B.C.E. of the Bronze Age. There were mud brick settlements surrounded by irrigated fields that have been found along a series of oases that stretch several hundred miles from the Caspian Sea to Afghanistan. There is evidence of the domestication of sheep and goats with a widespread trade with other societies in the region. In addition, engraved stone seals indicated they developed their own writing. The rudiments of civilization in ancient times were not limited to the great river valleys located on the edges of the African and Asian continents.

Describe the arrival of the Aryans.

Archaeologists have discovered signs of first a gradual decay and then destruction of Mohenjo-Daro (“city of the dead”) around 1500 B.C.E. Most of the skeletons found have been in postures of running or hiding in the ruins of the Roman city of Pompeii that was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. The signs have led archaeologists to the conclusion that Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who were nomads from the north who arrived in the subcontinent around the middle of the second millennium B.C.E. The Aryans were not as sophisticated culturally, but they were skilled at war. Although the Aryan people may not be directly responsible for the final destruction of Mohenjo-Daro, they may have already fallen due to climate changes in the Indus valley. There are evidence of mohenjo-Daro being destroyed by an epidemic of natural phenomena such as floods, or earthquakes.

Who were the early Aryans?

The Aryans were part of the extensive group of Indo-European speaking people who inhabited vast areas in what is now Siberia and near Central Asia. The Indo-European speaking people moved westward and eventually settled in Europe, but the Aryans moved across the Hindu Kush into the plains of northern India. They gradually adapted to the geographical realities of their new home and abandoned the life of agricultural pursuits. The invention of iron by the Hittites allowed the Aryans to clear the jungle growth along the Ganges River that later transformed into the Ganges valley and one of the rich agricultural regions in South Asia. They developed their first writing system based on the Aramaic script in the Middle East that enabled them to pass down and transcribe legends by memory. Therefore, most of what is known by the early Aryans are based on ancient work written down in India. In other Indo-European societies, each of the tribes were led by a chieftain called a raja who were assisted by a council of elders composed of other leading members and were normally a member of the warrior class called the kshatriya. They were not gods themselves, however they began to transform into kings, usually called maharajas (“great rajas”) and were required to follow the dharma, a set of laws that set behavioral standards for all individuals and classes in Indian society.

Describe the Mauryan Empire.

Although the Alexandrian conquest was brief, it played a role on the history of India. After the departure of Alexandria, a new dynasty arrised and the founder of the new state was Chandragupta Maurya (324 - 301 B.C.E. The capital of the new Mauryan Empire was at Pataliputra or modern Patna. Little is known of the empire because of scattered remnants of a lost work written by Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court. Chandragupta was apparently advised by a court official named Kautilya who was referenced to a treatise on politics called the Arthasastra. The Arthasastra follows the Aryan tradition that happiness of the king lies in the happiness of his subjects. The king possessed a large army and a secret police that followed his orders. He took prudent measures such as never sleeping in the same bed twice because he was fearful of assassination. To digress against corruption, a board of censors investigated cases of possible malfeasance with the bureaucracy. The empire was divided into provinces that were ruled by governors and became hereditary. At the base of the government pyramid was the village that was governed by a council of elders.

What were the social structures and class in India?

The Aryans already possessed a social system when they arrived in India that was based on a ruling warrior class and other characteristics. The lighter skinned people tended to be a higher status, while the darker skin suggested the opposite. Indian classes were known as varna (“color”) that determined not only one’s occupation but one;s status in society. There were five major varna in Indian society, with the top two that represented the ruling elites: the priests and the warriors. The priestly class was known as the brahmins and the second class was the kshatriya or warriors. Sometimes, new families from other classes were secretly accepted into the ranks of the warriors. The third-ranked class was the vaisyas or merchant class. Only the members of this class were sanctioned to hunt and keep cattle, while receiving an allowance of corn from the king. In addition, they were considered to be “twice-born” which was a ceremony at puberty for young males into adulthood and could wear the “sacred thread” for the remainder of their lives for the members of the top three classes. Below the “twice-born” classes were the sudras who represented the great bulk of the population and were not considered fully Aryan. They were peasants or artisans, but they had it easy compared to the untouchables (outcasts or pariahs). They probably originated as a slave class consisting of prisoners of war, criminals, and ethnic minorities. They were not considered human and their presence was considered polluting to other members. The people of ancient India were referred to as the jati, a system of extended families that originated in ancient India.

Describe daily life in Ancient India.

Family, not the individuals of India were the most basic unit in society. With three generations living under the same roof, it was often patriarchal, except along the Malabar coast where a matriarchal form was there. Each family was linked together in a religious sense by ceremonies where the eldest male figure lead the rites. Women could not serve as priests and were normally not permitted to study the Vedas. While males had a monopoly on education to read for family rituals, and were taught by a guru or teacher. Only males could inherit property, unless there were no sons. Divorce was prohibited according the the Arthasastra, a wife could divorce if she had been deserted by her husband. Producing children was important because they provided security for their parents in old age. The ritual of sati encouraged women to throw herself on her dead husband’s funeral and some even burned themselves along with them. Women were considered an economic burden mainly because men did most of the work in the fields.

What was India’s economy like?

The Aryans likely expanded agriculture with the invention of the iron plow and the spread of northern Indian culture into the Deccan Plateau. Life was not easy as Indian farmers, but the most fortunate were those who owned their own land even if they had to pay taxes. Land was divided among the sons in large lands. Another problem was the monsoon which was a seasonal wind pattern that blows from the southwest during the summer months and from the northeast during the winter. Some had strong governments that tried to build state-operated granaries or irrigation systems. India later became one of the most advanced trading and manufacturing civilizations. India became a major transit point in a vast commercial network that extended from the rim of the Pacific Ocean to the Middle East and the Mediterranean Sea by sea and camel caravan. A money economy probably came into operation during the second century B.C.E. when copper and gold coins were introduced from the Middle East.

Describe the religion Hinduism.

Indian religion was a blend of Aryana and Dravidian culture. The evidence about the earliest beliefs of the Aryan peoples come from sacred texts such as the Vedas, for collections of hymns and religious ceremonies transmitted by memory through the centuries. The great forces of nature was similar to the immortals of Greek mythology. The brahmins or priestly class played a key role in the sacrificing ceremonies. Asceticism was another belief in the sixth century B.C.E. about self-discipline or subjecting oneself to painful stimuli in replace of sacrificing. The purpose was to reach beyond material reality to a world of truth and bliss beyond earthly joy and sorrow, and evolved into yoga. Reincarnation was the idea that the soul is reborn in a different form after death and goes through several existences on the wheel of life until it reaches its final destination with the Great World Soul, Brahman. Karma is the key in this process that one’s rebirth is determined by one’s actions (karma) in this life. The higher one was on the social class, the closer he/she was to the ultimate release. The dharma or the law regulated human behavior depending on their status such as the brahmin had to abstain from eating meat, while the rest could. There is about 33,000 deities but only Brahman the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer are primary ones.

Describe Buddhism: the middle path.

The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama, a native of a small kingdom in the Himalaya Mountains. At the age of 29, he saw illness, death, and the degradation by old age and wanted to know the cause of human suffering. He traveled and one day meditated under a tree to achieve enlightenment. He had a vision of Nirvana that involves a final reunion with the Great World Soul. Worldly cares must be abandoned as a key step to the road to Nirvana. The Middle Path or the Eightfold Way calls for right knowledge, right purpose, right speech, right conduct, right occupation, right effort, right awareness, and right meditation. He supported the idea of reincarnation, but rejected the Hindu defined classes and that all human beings could aspire to Nirvana. After Siddhartha’s death, people carried his message and established temples and stupas. Jainsim was founded by Mahavira and preached a doctrine of extreme simplicity to his followers who were mainly beggars. Buddhism expanded even more when Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya converted.

What was the rule of the fishes after the Mauryas?

In 232 B.C.E., the Mauryan Empire began to decline and by 183, the last Mauryan ruler was overthrown by one of his military commanders. Indo-European-speaking peoples seized power in the area and proclaimed the new Kushan kingdom. They extended their political sway over northern India as far as the central Ganges valley. India did not see unity again for another five hundred years. There are several reasons for India’s failure to maintain a unified empire. Some historians suggest that a decline in regional trade may have contributed to the growth of small land-based kingdoms, which drew their primary income from agriculture. The tenacity of the Aryan tradition on tribal rivalries may also have contributed. The behavior of the ruling class was characterized by the “rule of the fishes” which glorified warfare as the natural activity of the king and the aristocracy.

Explain literature in Ancient India.

While other societies excel in some forms of artistic and literary achievement, India has produced great works in all the fields. The four Vedas was the earliest known Indian literature that was passed down orally from generation to generation. The Rig Veda dates from the second millennium B.C.E. and consists of over a thousand hymns used at religious ceremonies, while the other three were written later for instructions to performing ritual sacrifices. Sanskrit was the language of the Vedas, but declined in India and was replaced by Prakrit. The scholar Panini during the fourth century B.C.E. set forth four thousand grammatical rules prescribing the correct usage of the spoken and written language. India’s holy literature was probably inscribed on palm leaves stitched together into a book. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana were India’s great historical epics that have been recited at religious ceremonies. The Mahabharata consisted of a story of war between cousins for control over nine hundred years earlier, legends of Hindu gods, and the so-called Bhagavad Gita. While the Ramayana was written the same time (100 B.C.E) and was shorter. Similar to the Mahabharata, it strongly says the religious and moral significance.

What were India’s architectural and sculptural achievements?

Along with literature, the greatest achievements of early Indian civilization were in architecture and sculpture. The earliest examples were from the time of Ashoka where Buddhism became the religion of the state. Stone began to rise after the Mauryas. The three main types of religious structures were the pillar, the stupa, and the rock chamber. Weighing up to 50 pounds each and rising as high as 32 feet, these polished sandstone pillars were topped with a carved capital of Buddha’s message. A stupa was originally suppose to house a relic of the Buddha such as a lock of his hair,but eventually became a place of devotion. Legend says Ashoka ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout India, and a few survived including the famous stupa at Sanchi. The rock chamber was carved out of a cliff on the side of a mountain. All three forms of architecture were embellished with decorations and reflect sacred themes of Buddhist, Vedic, and pre-Aryan religious motifs.

Describe India’s science.

Although the knowledge of Indian science is limited by written sources, it is evident that ancient Indians had an impressive amount of scientific knowledge. In mathematics, they devised the numerical system as Arabic numbers. Also, in astronomy they charted the movements of the heavenly bodies and recognized the spherical nature of the earth at an early date. Similar to the greeks, they believed matter was divided into the five elements of earth, air, fire, water, and ether. Their quality of their textiles and the massive stone pillars were impressive technological achievements.

Chapter 3

Explain the dawn of Chinese civilization.

Chinese society was founded by a series of rulers who brought the first rudiments of civilization nearly five thousand years ago. Fu Xi was the first ruler or ox-tamer who “knotted cords for hunting and fishing,” domesticated animals, and introduced the beginning of family life. Second was Shen Nong or divine farmer who “bent wood for plows and hewed wood for plowshares,” and taught the people the techniques of agriculture. And last was Huang Di or yellow emperor who “strung a piece of wood for the bow, and whittled little sticks of wood for the arrows.” He is credited for creating the Chinese system of writing and inventing the bow and arrow. Historians do not believe in such legends, but instead view them as part of the process early peoples attempt to make sense of the world. Although there is no clear evidence of the three rulers, their achievements symbolize characteristics of Chinese civilization the interaction between nomadic and agricultural peoples, the importance of the family as the basic unit of Chinese life, and the development of a unique system of writing.

Describe the land and people of China.

The first Homo sapiens arrived in China after 40,000 B.C.E.

as an effect of the great migration out of Africa. The neighborhood of the Yellow River gave birth to two Neolithic societies known as the Yangshao and the Longshan cultures. In addition, similar communities began to appear in the Yangtze valley, but was based on rice rather than dry crops. The Yellow and Yangtze Rivers are considered the core regions in the development of Chinese civilization as they spread to other lowland areas. With China’s 12 percent of total land area arable, much of the remainder consists of mountains and deserts that ring the country north and west. The geographical barriers served to isolate China from advanced agrarian societies. When China was unified with capable rulers, it kept the nomadic intruders at bay. But in times of internal weakness, China was vulnerable to attack from the north, and sometimes nomadic people succeeded in overthrowing native Chinese rulers. The other directions of China was little to fear. The east laid the China Sea and a lair for pirates, but was not a source of concern. The south was a hilly region inhabited by a mixture of varied

people.

Describe the rule of the Shang dynasty.

Some historians believe the Xia dynasty was the founding civilization more than four thousand years ago. Legend states the founder was a ruler named Yu, who introduced irrigation and draining the floodwaters that threatened the northern China plain. The Shang dynasty later replaced the Xia around the sixteenth century. They were mostly an agricultural society that was ruled by a class with an occupation as war and a control over metals and salt. The Shang may have been descendants of the Neolithic people, and acquired the knowledge of horse-drawn chariots. Other studies suggest they may have been with the Indo-Europeans from the west. In 2000 B.C.E., it is likely spoked wheels helped aid the Shang dynasty in their rise to power. The Shang realm was divided into territories that were governed by chieftains appointed by the king. Oracle bones were used for communicating with the gods. The veneration of ancestors consists of burning replicas of physical objects to accompany one to the other world. In the area of the Yellow River, the farming village was the basic social unit of China. Shang people mastered the art of casting bronze and achieved a sophisticated writing system that spread throughout East Asia and evolved.

Describe the Zhou Dynasty.

By the eleventh century, the Shang dynasty was overruled by a young state located west of Anyang. Zhou became the new dynasty and was the longest-lasting dynasty that lasted for 800 years. The last Shang ruler was a tyrant who oppressed the people that lead to the rule of Zhou to revolt and give rise to a new dynasty. Their capital became the present-day city of Xian. After, they also established another capital city at modern Luoyang that is east. They did this to administer new territories that were captured from the Shang. The eastern and western capitals endured off and on in China for about two thousand years.

What were the Zhou dynasty’s political structures?

The Zhou dynasty (1045 - 221 B.C.E.) continued the practice of dividing the kingdom into territories that were governed by officials appointed by the king. There were several ministries responsible for rites, education, law, and public works. The Zhou dynasty ruled China because it had the “mandate of Heaven” with the Zhou king representing Heaven. If the king failed to rule with compassion and efficiency to please the gods for good harvests, he could be overthrown or replaced. Unlike Mesopotamia and Greece, Heaven was viewed as a good force devoted to harmony and order by a positive human action. It became a golden age where there was harmony in the world under Heaven. However, by the sixth century the Zhou dynasty began to crumble. There were internal rivalries with governing officials making their positions hereditary. With the greater power of the officials, they regulated the economy and expanded armies by tax systems and government monopolies on salt and iron.

Explain Zhou’s economy and society.

The well field system was the continued practice of land ownership from the Shang in which the peasants worked on lands owned by their lord but had land for themselves, too. Merchants and artisans carried out trade and manufacturing, while slaves performed menial tasks and worked on irrigation projects. During the Zhou period from the sixth to third century B.C.E., there was a significant growth of technological innovation: large-scale water control projects to regulate the flow of river and distribute water evenly to the fields, and canals to regulate the transport of goods from other places. The iron led to iron plowshares, and other innovations such as the natural fertilizer, and the collar harness. Rice became the prime source of food in China because of its high nutritional value, even though it was difficult and time-consuming. Silk was an important item of trade as early as the fifth century that was used for clothing, quilts, and wrapping bodies of the dead. Jade was a sacred symbol of purity and virtue by Confucius and propelled merchants along the Silk Road. Seashells were the first form of money, but later pieces of iron shaped like a knife or round coins with a hole in the middle.

What were the hundred schools of Ancient Philosophy?

As the effort to comprehend the nature of the cosmos and the role of human beings began to grow, the “hundred schools” of ancient philosophy was a wide-ranged debate over the nature of life at the end of the Zhou dynasty. The Shang had an early belief of existence of one transcendent god, known as Shang Di. Another idea was that the universe was divided into two forces of good and evil, called the yin and yang. Confucius was a great political and social philosopher who had a detached and skeptical view of Heaven. He believed human beings could act harmonious if they could behave in accordance with the Dao. The two important element of the Dao were the concepts of duty and the idea of humanity. Another philosopher, Mencius argued that human beings were by nature good and could be taught their civic responsibilities. While, Legalists argued that human beings by nature were evil and would follow the correct path by harsh laws. The philosophy of Daoism was founded by Lao Tzu and presents a view of life and its ultimate meaning.

Describe the Qin Dynasty.

The Qin Dynasty (221 - 206 B.C.E) mainly came to power by the character of the ruler, Qin Shi Huangdi who had a forceful personality and immense ambition at the age of thirteen. The philosophical doctrines in the Zhou period were now forbidden and Legalism was the official ideology. The central bureaucracy was divided into three ministries: a civil authority, a military authority, and a censorate. And below the central government were two levels of administration: provinces and countries. They lived by hunting and fishing, practicing agriculture, or herding animals like cattle or sheep. Near the end of the Zhou dynasty, the Xiongnu were a serious threat to China’s northern frontier. Qin Shi Huangdi’s project was the Great Wall which extends nearly 4,000 miles from the sandy wastes of central Asia to the sea. He established a class of eunuchs who served as personal bodyguards of the royal family. People were unhappy of harsh taxes, forced labor projects, and Confucian thinkers. The emperor died in 210 B.C.E., and four years it was overthrown due to factional rivalry.

Explain daily life in Ancient China.

The farm village, organized around the clan was the basic social unit in China in the Yellow River valley. The family took on increasing importance because of the need for cooperation in agriculture during the Zhou dynasty. Children and their loyalty were essential to the survival of the family and community. Filial piety was the idea of all members of the family to subordinate their personal needs and desires to the patriarchal head of the family. The five relationships consisted of the son subjected to the father, the wife to her husband, the younger brother to the older, and everybody were subject to the king. The final relationship was between friend and friend in order for a community to function efficiently. Under the name of the Bao-jia system, later dynasties continued this practice. After the Qin dynasty, the Han dynasty continued the family hierarchy and increased in importance. The family was also the basic social unit for education, religious observances, and training in ethical principles.

Explain China’s lifestyles.

The first Chinese houses were constructed of wooden planks, but later the art of building in tile and bricks came. By the second century, most Chinese lived in simple houses of mud, wooden planks, or bricks with thatch or tile roofs. There were little furniture and most people squatted or sat on the mud floor because chairs were introduced in the sixth or seventh century. Clothing including cotton trousers and shirts in the summer, with wool or burlap in the winter. The primary foods were millet in the north and rice in the south, although during the Zhou dynasty, stir-frying became common instead of porridge. Alcohol became in the form of ale and was only drunk by the higher classes. Tea drinking found in southern China, did not become widespread until about 500 B.C.E. Tea was known for its medicinal qualities and the soothing of the spirit.

What were cities described as in Ancient China?

Most Chinese lived along the countryside, however as time went on, cities began to play a larger role in Chinese society. The first towns were small in size and limited in population. In addition, they were little more than forts for the local aristocracy. During the Zhou period, larger towns located on the major trade routes began to combine administrative and economic functions. They were used for regional markets or manufacturing centers. These cities were surrounded by a wall and a moat with a raised platform that might be built within the walls. The walls provided a place for ceremonies and housing for the ruler’s family.

Describe women in Ancient China.

In the social system of Ancient China, male dominance was essential. Men worked in the fields producing food and women raised children and served at home. Legend has it that Fu Xi’s wife, Nu Wa assisted her husband in organizing society and established the institution of marriage and family. After the death of Fu Xi, she became China’s first female sovereign. Even though women did not occupy formal position of authority, they often became a force in politics, especially in court where the influence palace intrigues. The gender relationships were also described in the written language: the character for man has strength and rice field, while the woman character represents a person of difference and respect. A wife is also symbolized by a woman with a broom. Men played a role in governing society and carried on family ritual through the ancestors. Women were viewed as useless and people were unhappy if they owned one.

How did the Chinese use metalwork and sculpture?

Evidence at archaeological sites indicate ancient China was very rich in cultural achievement. During the Shang dynasty, bronze began to appear and were used in preparing and serving food and drinks to ancestral rites. Bronze casting was a large-scale business with more than ten thousand vessels remaining today. Around the ninth or eighth century, ironmaking developed. With the development of the blast furnace, powered by a person operating a bellow, there were able to manufacture cast-iron vessels centuries before the West could. In addition, the development of lacquerware and ceramics helped the deterioration of the bronze-casting tradition. Farmers digging a well about 35 miles east of Xian discovered terra-cotta figures that were believed to accompany the emperor on his journey to the next world. There are more than six thousand figures in one pit out of four in total. This shows the burden the Qin ruler must have put on his subjects to build a mound nearly 250 feet high surrounded by a rectangular wall nearly 4 miles around.

Describe Chinese Language and Literature.

Ancient Chinese language was primarily ideographic and pictographic in form. Symbols or characters were used to represent an idea or to form the picture of the object represented. By the Qin dynasty, the written language came to be seen as an art form as well as communication. Calligraphy became one of the most prized forms of painting in China. The vast majority spoke a tongue derived from Sinitic language. The written system evolved into its own vocabulary and grammatical structure. Therefore, the users of written Chinese require special training because of its complexity. The earliest form of literature dates from the Zhou dynasty. It became written on silk or strips of bamboo that included history records such as the Rites of Zhou, Analects, The Way of Tao, etc. The books of Confucian Classic were required to read for generations of Chinese schoolchildren.

Describe Chinese music.

In Ancient China, music was not only for pleasure, but also to achieve political order and refining human character. Music eventually was appreciated for singing and dancing. Flutes, various stringed instruments, bells and chimes, drums, and gourds were musical instruments used. Bells were made of bronze and considered the best examples of early bronze work in China. Some weighed over two tons with a range of several octaves, while the Roman Empire’s largest bell was only 6 centimeters high. During the late Zhou period, bells began to be used for entertainment instead of used for ceremonies only. In “The Book of History,” it suggests that the ballads emanating from the popular culture were welcomed at court. Popular music differed from court music. Popular music was more likely to be motivated by desire for pleasure, instead of law and order and moral uplift.

Chapter 4

Describe Ancient Greece.

Greece’s geography played an important role in their history. Although they occupied a small area (about the state of Louisiana), they saw on a mountainous peninsula. Their mountain ranges are up to 8,000 to 10,000 feet high that isolated Greeks for each other that allowed them to develop on their own. The long seacoast with bays and inlets, provided Greeks with harbors that allowed them to become seafarers and spread greek civilization throughout the Mediterranean region. One of the major territories, determined by topography, was south of the Gulf of Corinth called Peloponnesus that was an island attached by an isthmus to the mainland. It was the site of Sparta and Olympia that held athletic games. The Attic peninsula was northeast of Peloponnesus that was surrounded by mountains to the north and west, and the sea to the south and east. Boeotia was northwest of Attica in central Greece, with its chief city of Thebes. Another territory was Thessaly, which was north of Boeotia that contained the largest plains with grain and horses. Last, Macedonia was north of Thessaly and was not important until 338 B.C.E. when Macedonian king Philip II took over.

What is Minoan Crete?

Crete was the earliest civilization that laid southeast of the Greek mainland. It was a Bronze Age civilization with its use of metals, most important bronze, in making weapons. The English archaeologist discovered this civilization and named it “Minoan” from Minos, one of the Crete kings. They were not Greek with their language and religion, but played a role on the peoples of mainland Greek. An enormous palace was found at Knossus, near modern Iraklion that revealed Egyptian products. The height of Minoan civilization was between 2000 and 1450 B.C.E. The palace included many decorations and oil, wine, and grain as taxes to the king. Around 1450 B.C.E., the Minoan civilization of Crete had a sudden collapse. Historians believe a tsunami was the effect to the eruption on the island of Thera. However, other historians believe it was the result of invasions and a weakened Cretan society known as the Mycenaeans.

Describe the first Greek state: Mycenae.

Heinrich Schliemann found the site of the Mycenaean civilization in 1870. Between 1600 and 1100 B.C.E., Mycenae became a center in the Mycenaean Greek civilization. They were part of the Indo-European family that spread from the original location to western Europe, India, and Persia. They had a number of powerful monarchies found at Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, and Orchomenos. Above all, they were warrior people that took pride on their heroic deeds in battle. Some evidence indicates the Mycenaean developed an extensive commercial network because their pottery has been found throughout the Mediterranean basin: Syria and Egypt to the east and Sicily and southern Italy to the west. Other believe they spread outward militarily and conquered Crete. The epic of Homer consists of the most famous of all their alleged military adventures. Many historians have been debating whether the Mycenaean Greeks, led by Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae, sacked the city of Troy on the northwestern coast of Asia minor around B.C.E. During the late thirteenth century, Mycenaean Greece showed signs of trouble when it was burned and had a similar pattern as new Greek-speaking invaders moved into Greece from the north.

What was the Dark Age for the Greeks?

After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, Greece faced an era called the Dark Age (c.1100-c.750) where the population and food production was declining, until 850 B.C.E. Large numbers of Greeks migrated across the Aegean Sea into islands, in particular the southwestern shore of Asia Minor called Ionia. The Aeolian Greeks from northern and central Greece colonized the island of Lesbos and the territory next to the mainland, while the Dorians colonized in southwestern Greece. Iron soon replaced bronze to make them more affordable for people. During the eighth century, the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet for their new writing system that gave way to Homer’s work, the greatest poet of all time. Homer’s first great epic poems were the Iliad and the Odyssey that were stories passed on from generation to generation. His books reflects the values of aristocratic heroes. He gave the Greeks a universally accepted model of heroism, honor, and nobility. However, in time, city-states emerged in Greece and new values of cooperation and community changed their view of how they learned from Homer.

Describe the Polis.

The evolution of the city-state, or the polis, was the central institution of Greek life and the Greek’s colonization of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It could also be defines as a small political unit in which all major political, social, and religious activities are carried out at one location. The polis includes a city, town, or village and its surrounding countryside where the citizens could gather for political, social, and religious activities. This place was called an agora that was below the acropolis and served as a market, too. They varied in size and population and had about 250,000 by the fifth century, but most were much smaller with only a few hundred or thousand people. With the development of the polis, a new military system emerged based on hoplites that were heavily armed infantrymen who wore bronze or leather helmets, breastplates, and greaves. They advanced in battle as a until by forming a phalanx or a rectangular formation in tight order. The Greeks had excellent weapons and body armor with effective use of technological improvements. In addition, they included a large number of citizen-soldiers who gladly accepted the need for training and discipline.

Explain colonization and the growth of trade for Greeks.

A large number of Greeks left their homeland to settle in distant lands between 750 and 550 B.C.E. Factors such as the growing gulf between rich and poor, overpopulation, and trade helped the establishment of colonies. Each colony was an independent polis that linked to the mother polish oro metropolis based on common social, economic, and religious practices. The Greeks settled in many locations such as along the coastline of southern Italy, southern France, easter Spain, and northern Africa. They set up colonies in Thrace and sought good agricultural lands to grow grains. They spread their culture throughout the Mediterranean bases that helped them foster a greater sense of Greek identity. In addition, colonization led to increased trade and industry. They sent their pottery, wine, and olive oil and in return, they received grains and metals from the west and fish, timer, wheat, metals, and slaves from the Black Sea region.

How did tyranny in the Greek polis emerge?

The new industrial and commercial groups gave way to the rise of tyrants during the seventh and sixth centuries. Unlike the modern English word of tyrant connotes, the Greek tyrants were rulers who came to power in an unconstitutional way because they were not subject to the law. Instead they were aristocrats who were against the control of the aristocratic faction in their polis. As rulers, the tyrants built new marketplaces, temples, and walls that glorified the city and enhanced their popularity. However, by the sixth century B.C.E., they were terminated because the Greeks believed in the law, but tyrants didn’t. They played a significant role in Greek history by opening a door of new and more people in governing the affairs of the community. When viewing the two most powerful Greek city-states, Sparta and Athens, one can tell the Greek states exhibited considera