Scientists have long wanted to understand the environment and composition of the mantle. Teams of geologist have been trying for years to drill boreholes into the mantle. However, due to today’s technology and dwindling knowledge, as we get deeper and deeper into Earth, no one has come remotely close to getting there. Despite the failed attempts to collect material from the mantle, there are other ways that the mantle can be studied. One way is to study minerals that we can expect to find in the mantle such as wadsleyite. Wadsleyite was first discovered in the Peace River meteorite at Peace River, Alberta, Canada in 1966 and named after mineralogist Arthur David Wadsley. A phase transformation of the olivine, forsterite, wadsleyite is expected …show more content…
to be in abundance in the upper part of the mantle transition zone (Shatskiy et al.,2009). The mantle transition zone lies about 410 to 660 kilometers in depth. This may lead one to ask; how can something stable in such depth be studied? And what was it doing in meteorite? Determining a phase diagram for Wadsleyite is crucial. Once a phase diagram for Wadsleyite has been constructed, stable conditions for its growth is determined and the crystal can be synthesized in a lab allowing for its study. This also gives insight to the temperature and pressure that characterized this part of the mantle. A group of scientist including Shatskiy and his team were able to synthesize large crystal growths of Wadsleyite at about 1400 degrees Celsius, 15.5 gigapascals and 1700 degrees Celsius, 16.5 gigapascals. Shatskiy and his team strategically picked these pressure and temperature conditions as well as starting materials. A 5000 ton high pressure, high temperature apparatus from Okayama University was used and the team was able to grow wadsleyite crystals of varying sized and crystal shape. As for being found in the Peace River meteorite; chondrites are usually embedded in meteorites and consist mainly of silicate materials such as olivine. The phase transformation of this olivine to wadsleyite occurs from the impact of the meteorite hitting Earth. One can only be amazed by the magnitude of this kind of impact able to produce these high pressures and temperatures allowing for this transformation to occur. Given the properties of wadsleyite, it is strongly believed that the mantle transition zone may act as a vast water reservoir (Huang et al., 2005). In 1987 Joseph R. Smyth stated that hydroxyl sites in a crystal structure can be determined by electrostatic and Pauling bond-strength-summation methods. In its hydrous form wadsleyite have been found to support 3.3 percent of its weight in water (Griffin et al,. 2013). Given the volume of this zone of the mantle comprised of wadsleyite and when fully hydrated, the amount of hydrogen can exceed that of the oceans and atmosphere by four times. (Griffin et al,. 2013). Still it is hard to know for sure the water content in the mantle and more can be done to fully understand it.
In one particular study by Huang et al,. 2005, water content was inferred by determining what effect does water and temperature have on electrical conductivity of wadsleyite. To do this wadsleyite samples of about 7 micrometers were produce from San Carlos olivine in a similar apparatus to that from Okayama University. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, which utilizes frequency, was then used to determine the electrical conductivity samples. This electrical conductivity was correlated with varying degrees of temperature and water content of wadsleyite. This data was then compared to previous electrical conductivity studies on the mantle. It was then concluded that water content may vary regionally but an estimate of 0.1-0.2 percent weights in water content can be made for the Pacific (Huang et al., …show more content…
2005). Technology and science have taken great steps in allowing us to better understand the earth in which we live. Even though no actual physical samples can be recovered from the mantle, there are other ways to investigate the unknown. Often times we are able to recreate similar conditions of different environments that are inaccessible to further our understanding things that in the past seemed unattainable. Wadsleyite is a perfect example of this.
Certain and precise conditions must be met for this mineral to even exist; yet we are able to replicate it and understand its environment. This environment being the transition zone of the mantle that scientist only dream of reaching. In studying this mineral, a lot can be inferred about this area even before it is physically met. This zone from about 410 and 660 is defined by wadsleyite, encompasses pressures reaching 19 gigapascals and temperatures of 2000 degrees Celsius. This transition zone of the mantle is also highly likely to be a water reservoir concluded by all the studies done by the properties of wadsleyite. This is an extremely important find as more pieces of the puzzle come together to paint a better picture of how Earth
works. Although a big achievement, with each new find, more questions also arises. It is likely that more studies will take place to back up, dispute, or expand on existing hypothesis on wadsleyite and its role in understanding the mantle. As more knowledge is gained and technology advances, one can only dream about what we have yet to uncover.
Woop woop! Is the common sound heard in Beecher Terrace (housing apartments). There are 2.3 million people locked up in the United States. Kentucky spends about fifteen billion dollars per year incarcerating individuals from Beecher Terrace. Since the 1970’s the number of people locked up in the United States has grown from 300,000 to 2.3 million. Kentucky has been the center of this prison expansion. Charles McDuffie, Christel, Demetria, and Keith Huff all have something in common. Each of these individuals are repeat offenders, grew up or lived in Beech Terrace, and have some type of mental issue.
In March of 1768, in present-day Ohio, Tecumseh was born. Tecumseh's name means "Panther in the sky." Tecumseh was the fifth born in his family. His mom, Methotaske, was a Creek, and his dad, Puckeshinewa, was a Shawnee. He excelled at the game's Indian boys played. He also organized other boys to go on hunts. When Tecumseh was younger he admired and looked up to the warriors, like his older brother. He also tried to be like the warriors. Later in his life, Tecumseh became a powerful chief to the Native American Tribe, the Shawnee's. He did not want the Americans to take the Native American's land. He accomplished many things in his life.
In May of 1929 President Herbert Hoover appointed the Wickersham Commission with former U.S. Attorney General George W. Wickersham. The Wickersham Commission is officially called the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. The commission was in response to the public’s concern about crime and also was a way to resolve the debate of continuing prohibiting. Wickersham at the time was an attorney and a former cabinet member, as its chairmen. The Commission was the first review in the United States of federal review and law enforcement. It consisted of judges, educators, lawyers, that represented all sections of the country. The commission was made up of eleven subcommittees, and it published the 14 reports in 1931. These reports covered the importance of probation and parole, police procedures, and the cause of crime. The members that represented these committees were leading experts in
P.Wellman, Ian McDougal,(1974),Cainozoic igneous activity in Eastern Australia, Research School of Earth Sciences, ANU Canberra, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,pg 52
Minerals play an important role in our day-to-day life but we often not contemplate how the minerals are obtained. Minerals are scattered all over the world just like any other resources. Due to the natural processes of magma flow, hydrothermal gradients, sedimentation, and evaporation, Minerals are concentrated in various areas of the Earth’s crust. Obtaining these minerals for human use involves four general steps:
Feldspar and Olivine are two silicate minerals commonly found on the Earth’s surface, their chemical formulas are KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 –CaAl2Si2O8 for feldspars and (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 for olivine. Olivine is a nesosilicate, whereas feldspars are a group of tectosilicates, both minerals are anhydrous, since they contain no water in their chemical structure. Feldspars hold differing quantities of different elements, such as potassium, calcium, and sodium; making them classifiable in terms of composition, for instance, NaAlSi3O8 is Albite, while CaAl2Si2O8 is referred to as Anorthite.
Holmium is a chemical element and is the sixty seventh element on the periodic table. It is located in Period six and it is a member of the lanthanide group. It was discovered in 1879 by a Swedish chemist named Per Theodor Cleve. Like Carl Gustaf Monsander who discovered the elements lanthanum, erbium and terbium Theodor also used similar strategy's to find contaminants in the oxides of uncommon earth elements. He first looked at the oxide of erbium and was able to split it into two types of materials one being brown and the other green. This in turn caused Theodor to find the oxide of holmium (it was the brown material which is known as holmia) and this was how the element holmium was discovered.
Numerous methods are available for monitoring volcanic activity, and scientists typically synthesize data and observations from all methods available in order to obtain the most comprehensive look at the area being observed. One frequently used technique is monitoring seismic activity that may indicate flow of magma and gas beneath the surface. As magma at extreme temperatures of sometimes over one thousand
Recently in the Bismarck Sea there have been discoveries of rich minerals imbedded in the sea floor such as gold, lead, cobalt, silver, copper and zinc. We only have a short time left of gold, 16 years. There are several volcanoes located around the Bismarck Sea, which means there are many mineral deposits coming out from under the sea floor leaving deep pockets rich in coal and minerals. As the tectonic plates are moving they are activating volcanic eruptions, releasing minerals into the sea floor. With the tectonic plates continuously moving, the minerals and metal ores are shifting into the sea floor pockets causing the volcanoes to erupt coal and ores. The edge of the tectonic plates run directly under this site, subsequently releasing minerals from the magma below into the ocean floor.
“Between both our meteor fragments, we have an adequate amount of Reidite [the high-pressure Polymorph important in shock metamorphism], for a true assessment.” Boniface lights up his pipe, with a somber expression he places his feet on the desk, with the potential that he holds in his hands, he observes the sparkling qualities of the Reidite.
Here, a crater was found with a large content of iron surrounding the area. Because of this and the fact that there was nearby volcanoes, the crater was thought to be because of volcanoes. However, mining engineer Daniel Moreau Barringer thought otherwise. He believed that the indent was caused by a large mass of iron colliding with Earth’s surface, which was interred underneath the crater itself. He found that although there was no large, solid mass of iron underneath, there was breccia, which consist of other rocks in itself (Gaz 11). This breccia contained mostly of iron and nickel and was formed in an unorderly fashion rather than a layered one. Unfortunately, even with this experiment scientist still were not convinced. Even with the endless experiment laid out by scientist before, the impact theory remained unlikely by most scientist until man first step on the moon. After this, it was determined that any craters that could be soon from Earth were from impact and the idea that the moon had not been subjected to processes from volcanoes like thought before (Gaz 12). Today, most scientist realize the fact that impact is one of the most common act that has shaped Earth today (Gaz
This essay focuses on the Behaviour of base metals during partial melting in the upper mantle and fractional crystallization in the crustal magma. A base metal is a metal that easily oxidise and reacts with a diluted hydrochloric acid (HCL) to form hydrogen. The examples of base metals include iron, nickel, copper, zinc and lead. The Behaviour of these metals in terms of partial melting and fractional crystallization is discussed by using their partition coefficients. Partition coefficient is the ratio of concentration of an element in a mixture of a phase relative to another phase. In addition, the partition coefficient depends on pressure, the composition of the solid, the composition of the melt and the temperature (Hall, 1987). Furthermore, the Behaviour of these metals during fractional crystallization is discussed based on the results that were obtained from the study of Okataina Volcanic Center on how metals (Zn, Pb, Cu, Mo) Behaviour during crystallization and degassing of rhyolites. Then their Behaviour during partial melting is discussed based on the results that were obtained from the experiments which were done at 1.5-2.0GPa and 1300-1500ᵒC for divalent metals (Zn, Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni).
Halite (sodium chloride) comes from the Greek “halos”, meaning salt and “lithos” meaning rock, and is better known as “rock salt”. Salt is produced by the evaporation of seawater, but the greatest proportion of salt produced is derived from rock salt and salt domes. Two ways to obtain these rocks are by mining techniques or by “solution mining, in which fresh water is pumped down into the dome and the dissolved salt solution pumped back up to the surface recovery.” (The Encyclopedia Americana 164)
The first three points of the graph are located lower because some air was trapped in the core sample. The hydraulic conductivity becomes almost constant after approximately twenty minutes. The average hydraulic conductivity doesn’t have to be converted to the standard temperature because we worked under the standard temperature. The average hydraulic conductivity is 2,8 ∙ 10-5. According to the classes of saturated hydraulic conductivity, modified after Kutilek and Nielsen (1994) it is typically a loamy sand.
inferred for the reservoir (4). The magma ascent to the surface occurred through a conduit of possibly 70 to 100 m in diameter (5). A thermal model predicts that such a reservoir should contain a core of partially molten magma (6) that can be detected by high-resolution seismic tomography.