The Reformation Dbq

While Martin Luther is probably the most well-known figure from the Reformation, there were many other notable figures that went on to challenge the Catholic Church as well, such as Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and even King Henry VIII. Zwingli was a Swiss preacher who shared some of the same sentiments as Luther in regards to Church authority, that “scripture was the sole basis of truth, and the power of popes and councils was illusory” (Marshall, 18). He was able to give a public defense of his ideas, and eventually won out in reforming Switzerland: by 1524, “religious images were removed from the city churches, and fasting and clerical celibacy were abolished,” and in 1525, “the Latin mass was replaced with a vernacular communion service”

(Marshall, 18). While French preacher John Calvin’s influence began in the Swiss city of Geneva, he is perhaps most known for transforming France and beginning “French Protestantism,” followers of which became called “Huguenots.” Calvin’s teachings and beliefs, or “Calvinism,” “emphasized the sovereignty of the scriptures and divine predestination- a doctrine holding that God chooses a select few to enter Heaven, regardless of their good works or their faith” (Biography). Calvin is widely regarded as one of the most important figures of what became known as the “second surge” of the Protestant Reformation, after Luther. Ultimately, “other theological figures,” much like Zwingli and Calvin, “published their own perspectives,” and eventually, “new churches sprung up, representing principles that differed” from that of the Roman Catholic Church (Scialabba, 75). Finally, though more of a personal issue with the Church, the English King Henry VIII split with the Catholic Church when the pope refused his request of an annulment from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Since Pope Clement VII would not approve the annulment, Henry VIII separated from the Church and created the Church of England, or Anglican Church, in 1534, declaring himself as its Head. Once he did this, he was able to finally marry Anne Boleyn, without the approval of the Roman Catholic Church.
The Church’s “Counter-Reformation” was the “negative and essentially reactive response” to the ridicule and challenges of the Protestant Reformation (Marshall, 6).

The Catholic Church’s reform “was naturally shaped by an ongoing confrontation with Protestantism, just as Protestantism defined itself throughout its history in relation to a Catholic […] other” (Marshall, 6). The “office” of the Roman Inquisition was formed in 1542 and was a threatening vehicle to combat the growing atmosphere of Protestantism. As history will recall, the Inquisition was another result of the Church’s Counter-Reformation and is infamously known for their great searches for, and trials of, heretics. As one scholar wrote, “where censorship failed to prevent spiritual infection, the Inquisition strove to cure” (Moynahan, 440). The Roman Inquisition was founded in 1542 by Pope Paul III, and has been described as a “dreadful engine of tyranny” due to its seemingly nonexhaustive hunt for heretics (Moynahan, 440). One of the most famous figures to be tried by the Inquisition was Galileo, who was ultimately condemned to house arrest for the rest of his life. However, the Roman Inquisition is not to be confused with the Spanish Inquisition, the latter of which was older, and more brutal, than the Roman

Inquisition.
Between 1545-1563, the Church assembled in the Council of Trent meetings to try and reverse the affects of the Reformation.

The goals of the Council were many, including: the reinforcement of “Catholic doctrine, reform[ing] corruption from within the Church, identify[ing] errors in Protestant interpretation, standardize[ing] the Mass throughout the Church, and strengthen[ing] Catholic education” (Scialabba, 80). Ultimately, the decisions made during the Council of Trent sessions “were made within the context of controlling the new forces of Gutenberg’s invention” (Scialabba, 80). There’s no argument that the printing press fueled the Reformation due to its ability to spread knowledge and information on such unforeseen levels. In the 1546 session of the Council, the Vulgate, or Latin version, was established as the “official” version of the Bible, and it was declared that “no books should be printed on religious matters” without the approval of religious authorities (New Catholic

Encyclopedia).
Besides the Church responding to the Reformation with the brainstorming at the Council of Trent and, as will be discussed later, their Index, there was also a growth of more spiritual, literate, and educated followers of the Catholic faith. One of the biggest examples of “militant” followers to rise out of this Counter-Reformation were the Jesuits, who were zealous missionary followers who practiced strict religious morals and unshakeable faith. Perhaps one of the most well-known Jesuits was its founder, Ignatius Loyola. Loyola supported defending Catholicism and “made ‘combating the religious heresies of Protestantism’ the mission of his Jesuit ministry” (Scialabba, 81). The Jesuits were known for their missionary services and traveling to other countries to spread their faith “beyond one’s local area, […] directed towards non-Christians, non-Catholics, and Catholic Christians as well” (Scialabba, 81). Today, the Jesuits are most known for their innumerable amount of schools, and influence, worldwide.
However, it was the Church’s Index Librorum Prohibitorum that has been regarded as “one of the most successful and enduring censorial devices in history” (Bald, 182). The Index is also known as the “List of Prohibited Books,” the “List of Forbidden Books,” and the “Roman Index.” Under the order of Pope Paul IV, the first Index was compiled in 1557, and published in 1559 by the Roman Inquisition’s Sacred Congregation, which “act[ed] as the zealous guardians of the Faith,” and who “executed their office with severity” (Beacon). It should be noted that while the books included on the Index were “banned for their heretical or ideologically dangerous content,” they were actually also “only […] books that ecclesiastical authority was asked to act upon” (Beacon). Furthermore, “the list[s] had official sanction in all Catholic countries” (Beacon). Besides the various editions of the Index that would be published throughout the centuries, “Expurgatory Catalogues” were also issued, which contained “lists of literary works not entirely forbidden, but where sentences or parts were censored” (Beacon). Any Catholics who owned, or were caught reading, any of the listed books risked being excommunicated from the Church.