- THE CAUSES OF DELAYED MENARCHE IN FEMALE ATHLETES -
INTRODUCTION
Greater emphases on the benefits of exercise have led to a greater participation of women in sport at all levels. Exercise has been promoted, endorsed and encouraged in the medical community as a way to reduce stress and maintain a healthy lifestyle. While moderate exercise does provide valuable benefits, intensive exercise associated with elite female athletes poses serious health risks to the female body.
The female reproductive system is very intricate and highly sensitive to physiological stress. This increased stress level is often associated with several reproductive abnormalities such as delayed menarche, primary and secondary amenorrhea and oligomenorrhea occurring in 6–79% of women engaged in athletic activity (Warren and Perlroth 2001). This wide range of percentages is a result of various levels of athletic discipline and level of competition (Abraham et al. 1982, Glass et al. 1987).
The aforementioned reproductive abnormalities are largely the result of hypothalamic dysfunction and disturbance of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse generator. This suppression of GnRH results in possible infertility and an irreversible decrease in bone density. The scientific community seems to be split however, on the specific trigger that causes the reproductive dysfunction in athletes. There are two theories, which are widely accepted, the body composition theory and the energy drain theory.
The body composition theory states that intensive athletic training activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, which disrupts GnRH pulsatility and hence menstrual function. It is theorized that this suppression of the menstrual cycle may be a physiological adaptation to low caloric intake (Warren 1980). There is much evidence that suggests that the hormone leptin may help regulate reproductive function. Leptin levels have been found to change with respect to fat stores and energy availability. So, it can be reasoned that a low caloric intake will result in low levels of leptin. A study of females showed that had there is a certain threshold level of leptin that when gone below will result in no menstrual cycle (Kopp et al. 1997). Leptin receptors have also been located on hypothalamic control of the GnRH pulse generator thus leptin may be a critical factor involved in signaling low energy availability to the reproductive axis (Warren and Perlroth 2001). This shows us that the body can adapt to low energy levels by halting reproductive function and using the resulting energy for other metabolic activities.
The second view is the energy drain theory, which accounts for the loss of reproductive function in all athletic disciplines instead of just the “lean” sports.
Turn on ESPN, and there are many female sports reporters, and many reports on female athletes. Flip through Sports Illustrated, and female athletes are dotted throughout the magazine. Female athletes star in the commercials. Female athletes are on the cover of newspapers. Millions of books have been sold about hundreds of female athletes. However, this has not always been the case. The number of females playing sports nowadays compared to even twenty years ago is staggering, and the number just keeps rising. All the women athletes of today have people and events from past generations that inspired them, like Babe Didrikson Zaharias, the All-American Professional Girls Baseball League, Billie Jean King, and the 1999 United States Women’s World
Health Disparities and Racism is an ongoing problem that is reflected among society. Health is when an individual is physically, mentally and social well being is complete. However health disparities seems to be a social injustice within various ethnicities. Health disparities range from age, race, income, education and many other things. Even though we realize health disparities are more noticeable depending on the region of country where they live in. Racism is one of the most popular factors, for why it’s known that people struggle with health.
Taylor, W.N. Hormonal Manipulation: A New Era of Monstrous Athletes. 1985, McFarland and Company Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, and London.
The disparities in the healthcare system contribute to the overall health status disparities that affect ethnic and racial minorities. The sources of ethnic and racial healthcare disparities include cultural barriers, geography differences, or healthcare provider stereotyping. In addition, difficulties in communication between health care providers and patients, lack of access to healthcare providers, and lack of access to adequate health care coverage
Healthcare disparities are when there are inequalities or differences of the conditions of health and the quality of care that is received among specific groups of people such as African Americans, Caucasians, Asians, or Hispanics. Not only does it occur between racial and ethnic groups, health disparities can happen between males and females as well. Minorities have the worst healthcare outcomes, higher death rates, and are more prone to terminal diseases. For African American men and women, some of the most common health disparities are diabetes, cancer, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and HIV infections. Some factors that can contribute to disparities are healthcare access, transportation, specialist referrals, and non-effective communication with patients. There is also much racism that still occurs today, which can be another reason African Americans may be mistreated with their healthcare. “Although both black and white patients tended not to endorse the existence of racism in the medical system, African Americans patients were more likely to perceive racism” (Laveist, Nickerson, Bowie, 2000). Over the years, the health care system has made improvements but some Americans, such as African Americans, are still being treating unequally when wanting the same care they desire as everyone else.
The number of girls and women participating in all levels of sports has risen greatly in recent years, and the way they play has changed too. Women's sports used to be played by a slow defensive style. Today, the sports are played with speed, precision, and power. With these changes have come increased injuries, and female athletes have higher injury rates than men in many sports. Knee injuries have been rising in female sports. Anterior crutiate ligament (ACL) injuries have become the most common injury in the knee to female athletes. Females are four times more susceptible to injury then men.
“The past three decades have witnessed a steady growth in women's sports programs in America along with a remarkable increase in the number of women athletes (Daniel Frankl 2)” From an early age women were thought to be “Lady Like”; they are told not to get all sweaty and dirty. Over 200 years since Maud Watson stepped on the tennis courts of Wimbledon (Sports Media Digest 3); women now compete in all types and levels of sports from softball to National racing. Soccer fans saw Mia Hamm become the face of women’s soccer around the world, Venus and Serena Williams are two of the most popular figures in tennis, and Indy car racing had their first woman racer, Danika Patrick. With all the fame generated by these women in their respective sports, they still don’t receive the same compensation as the men in their respective sports fields.
Socioeconomic Disparities and health are growing at a rapid rate throughout the United States of America. To further understand the meaning of Socioeconomic Disparities, Health and Socioeconomic disparities & health, this essay will assist in providing evidence. Disparities can be defined in many ways, of which include ethnic and racial background and class types that deal with it the most. Due to the low income some individuals receive, they have less access to health care and are at risk for major health issues. Although, ethnicity and socioeconomic status should not determine the level of health care one should receive or whether not the individual receives healthcare.
Another issue of women in sports was the health risk to the women who compete. The recommendations of the scientists state that involvement in sports and other such physical activity reduces the likelihood of developing a number of life-threatening health conditions. Involvement in cooperative and competitive activities can improve a woman’s social outlook, sense of competence and emotional control.
Several health and healthcare disparities have been documented for Somali Americans living in Minnesota compared to other non-minority population groups living in the same
These differences occur as a result of culture, race and geographical location as well as socioeconomic status (Andrews, & Boyle, 2008). Health disparities affect racial and ethnic minorities, low-income groups, women, children, older adults, residents of rural areas, and individuals with disabilities and special care needs (National Institutes of Health, 2010). Health disparities result in inadequate health care for affected populations with significant medical problems. Inadequate health care delivered in an untimely fashion ultimately requires more intervention to resolve worsening problems and also increases health care expenses for individuals, families, and communities (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008).
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Crime Fiction is a genre which deals with elements of criminal activity and the investigators who solve the crime. This genre engages the audience by allowing them to solve the puzzle and put the clues together to find a criminal. The story ‘Upon the flesh’ by John Franklin is about a murder that occurred in an alleyway. It is told through the point of view of the private investigator, this is how we see the crime being solved. Another short story that would fit into this genre would be ‘fresh bait’ written by Sherryl Clark. This story tells us about a hitchhiker trying to investigate into a crime committed some time ago. He/she is nervous and doesn’t know how to approach each question without seeming like he/she is an undercover
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