2. Standard Model
The Standard Model is known as a gauge theory, and is based on the symmetry group SU(3)C⊗SU(2)L⊗U(1)Y; as described in the previous section the symmetry group of standard model, describes the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions, via the exchange of 8 massless gluons and 1 massless photon, respectively, for the strong and electromagnetic interactions, and three massive bosons, W± and Z, for the weak interaction2. Leptons and quarks which are the building blocks of the fermionic matter, are characterized in the structure below, (3)
(4)
(5)
and each quark appears in its three different colours, as shown below2,
(6)
The notation in the above equations is also illustrated in the table below.
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Given these conditions, theory will involve Quantum Electrodynamics with a massless photon, a charged scalar field ϕ and mass μ4.
However, if μ2 > 0, the field will obtain a vacuum expectation value as below,
(17)
and in such a case the global U(1) symmetry will be spontaneously broken.
A parameterized ϕ has the following form,
(18)
where h and χ are the Higgs boson and the Goldstone boson, respectively, and represent real scalar fields with no vacuum expectation values. If we substitute this scalar field into the original Lagrangian, we obtain the following4,
(19)
This new derived Lagrangian describes a photon of mass mA = ev, a Higgs boson h with the following mass,
(20)
along with a massless Goldstone χ. In addition, to remove the χ-Aμ mixing can be removed from the Lagrangian through the following gauge
The reading focused mostly on the five models especially towards the last four chapters of the book and from all of the models it is transparent that the 5th model which is the Alli...
By John Schilb and John Clifford. 5th ed.
Nagaoka rejected Thomson's model on the ground that opposite charges are impenetrable. He proposed an alternative model in which a positively charged center...
In 1803 this theory was finalised and stated that (1) all matter is made up of the smallest possible particles termed atoms, (2) atoms of a given element have unique characteristics and weight, and (3) three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules).
...s. These versions are known as type I, type IIA, type IIB, and the two flavors of heterotic string theory (SO(32) and E8×E8). The thinking was that out of these five candidate theories, only one was the actual correct theory of everything, and that theory was the one whose low energy limit matched the physics observed in our world today.
Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field-dependent and
Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics 10th Edition. 10th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Addison Wesley, 2006.
Even though their co-incidence on this point is not explicit but one can infer an implicit similar pattern in their theories
Most people would say that the model family is two biological parents and two kids, but if you look into how families in reality are, we are nothing like that. Generations have changed, tolerances have risen, non acceptable things have become acceptable. Grandmas and grandpas today frown upon the way our families have evolutionized. The way their generation was raised and the families they were raised in makes them have their own ideas of how families should be rather than how they are now. More and more diverse living styles are now considered families. Families have changed so much over the years that the model family is virtually nonexistent.
In the theory now presented by the author, the long sought graviton particle is viewed as the 'Spent' or residual, low energy particle arising from the proton/neutron/electron exponential decay process. This decay represents the energy required to support th...
In the book, Jim Holt interviews people from theologists like Richard Swinburne, to philosophers of science such as Adolf Grunbaum, from theoretical physicists like David Deutsch, Regular physicists such as Steven Weinberg, to Platonist’s like Roger Penrose. In my essay, I have chosen to look at the ideas established by the philosopher Adolf Grunbaum as well as the theologist of Swinburne. Jim Holt describes the exchanges between them as an 'intricate metaphysical ping pong match.' Both of these theologists are very ...
In 1924, the Indian physicist S. N. Bose developed an alternate law of radiation which modified Planck's laws to include a new variety of particles, namely, the boson. He sent off his theory to Einstein for revision and translation, and Einstein swiftly came up with some additions to the theory. He expanded the laws to incorporate the mass of the boson, and in doing so theorized a strange phenomenon. He predicted that when atoms of a gas came together under cold enough temperatures, and slowed down significantly, that they would all assume the exact same quantum state. He knew that this slow quantum gas would have strange properties, but wasn't able to get much further by theorizing. This phenomenon, which came to be known as a Bose-Einstien condensate, was an incredible leap in quantum theory, but it wasn't demonstrated until 1995 when Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman made the first Bose-Einstein condensate with supercooled alkali gas atoms. Although this development didn't come until late in the 20th century, many of these strange properties were observed in supercooled He4 by Dr. Pyotr Kapitsa. Helium became the standard for observing superfluid phenomenon, and most new superfluid properties are still observed first in Helium 4.
1 David Halliday, Robert Resnick, and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Extended, 5th ed. (NewYork:Wiley, 1997) 361
Recker, D. M. (2011, March 3). Utah State University. Retrieved from Utah State University web site: http://inst.usu.edu/~mimi/courses/6260/theorists/Ausubel/aususc.html
The Big Bang Theory is the approved model that scientists use to describe the beginning and original evolution of the universe. The Big Bang created all of the matter and energy in the universe, including hydrogen and helium. A few of the light atoms were forged into the cores of stars, over billions of years, or through violent explosions of supernovae