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In the medieval and early modern periods, the vast majority of political power was split between two institutions: the church and the state. In the middle ages, the Roman Catholic church was certainly one of the most influential religious organizations. This church often clashed with the secular monarchs of western Europe. However, it is somewhat inappropriate to refer to these monarchs as secular, since their power had a significant religious basis, just as the church often relied on the military backing of the lay kings. The relationship between spiritual and secular authority is both competitive and cooperative; both groups relied on each other’s support and simultaneously attempted to establish control over the other with no clear winner. …show more content…
In order to examine the nature of secular versus spiritual authority in the middle ages, it is useful to explore some of the background of this relationship, which in the case of western Europe and the Roman Catholic Church refers primarily to the Roman Empire and Constantine. The medieval Roman Catholic Church is a good example of the conflict of secular and spiritual power because of its autonomy and relative separation from state control. Before Christianity was founded, Rome primarily followed its own pantheon of gods based on those of Ancient Greece as well as local and personal gods. This religion did not have its own strong independent institution outside of the state. “In dreams they encountered their personal gods...At home they found their household gods...Outside, on the street, they visited temples and monuments to local gods…” (Rosenwein A Short History of the Middle Ages, 5-6). For a time Christians were persecuted in the Roman Empire, that is until the Edict of Milan. This edict protected Christians from state persecution and with the backing of the eventually converted Constantine, the Christian church began to slowly grow as an institution. Rosenwein supports this idea by saying, “After Constantine, it was simply a matter of time before most people considered it both good and expedient to convert….Emperor Theodosius I declared the the form of Christianity determined at the Council of Nicea applied to all Romans” (7). After the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the Roman Catholic Church retained its following and was able to influence many “barbarian” tribes because of its connection with Rome. However, the church was in a precarious position because of its lack of significant military strength, and as a result its lands fell under attack from groups such as the Lombards. Pope Stephen II’s Letters to King Pippin III provide good insight into the nature of this conflict as well as the nature of the Papacy’s alliance with Carolingian France. The pope begins one letter with, “Pope Stephen to the most excellent lords and sons, Pippin king and our spiritual co-father, and Charles and Carloman, likewise kings and all of them Patricians of the Romans” (Rosenwein Reading the Middle Ages, 128). We can glean a number of details about the relationship between the pope and the French monarchy from this very first sentence. First, we can see that Stephen addresses Pippin and his sons with a good deal of respect, which is to be expected as the purpose of the letter is to request military aid and the return of church lands. Second, the pope tries to establish a personal spiritual relationship with the kings from his status as co-father, which resulted from his anointing of Pippin’s sons as kings. Third, Stephen emphasizes his connection with the Roman Empire by referring to the kings as Patricians of the Romans, which was technically a right reserved for the Roman Empire who would have been Byzantine at this time. This layered message shows the complex nature of the relationship of the papacy and the French monarchy at this time. The pope is relying on the aid of the secular authority, but is careful to establish his own power and to not appear weak or subservient to the king. One of the main ways Stephen establishes his authority throughout these letters is through reference to the bible and St. Peter. For example, Stephen writes, “...even as all Christians declare that you are more glorious than other peoples in service of blessed Peter, you should in the same way please the almighty Lord, ‘who gives salvation to kings’...” (128-129). The Roman Catholic Church believed that Jesus chose his apostle, Peter, to lead his church and that the popes were his successors. With that in mind, this quote can be seen as, in a way, an implication that Pippin should serve the papacy as a sort of extension of St. Peter. Additionally, the bible reference to god giving salvation to kings serves to appeal to the king’s likely belief that helping the church would help ensure his admittance into heaven. Pope Stephen also seeks to instill a sense of religious outrage in king Pippin by describing the Lombards’ assault on holy lands. Stephen describes King Aisulf’s troops camping outside the gates of St. Peter and John the Baptist as well as the burning of churches and desecration of nuns. Similarly he then writes, “And as for the holy gifts, that is the body of our Lord Jesus Christ, they have put them in their foul vessels hat they call bags, and stuffed with abundant food of flesh, they eat those same gifts” (131). This description is especially powerful, as Stephen paints a picture of the Lombards disrespecting and eating the very body of Pippin’s god, which was likely very compelling. Even though the pope is martially weak, he is able to gather a significant amount of influence through his religious appeals. This influence proved to be very effective, as Rosenwein states that Pippin did indeed come to the pope’s aid and returned the church’s land. From this conflict, the bond between the papacy and Carolingian monarchy grew. We can see this from the Roman Catholic Church’s anointing of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne also fought the Lombards on behalf of the pope, and gained significant authority from his title granted by the church. However, most of Charlemagne and Pippin’s power laid in their military strength, which should not be undervalued. Without Pippin’s intervention, the papacy would have been at the mercy of the Lombards and the Roman Catholic Church’s autonomy possibly could have been lost completely. While secular and spiritual authority existed symbiotically in places like Carolingian France, there were also times when the two powers came into direct conflict.
One such example is the conflict between King Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. First, we will examine the “secular” view of Henry IV, which in fact still relied heavily on spiritual authority. Henry begins his Letter to Gregory VII by writing, “Henry, King not by usurpation, but by the pious ordination of God, to Hildebrand, now not Pope, but false monk…” (258). Here Henry seeks to call out the pope as an individual by calling him Hildebrand, his given name, and is careful not to attack the church or Christianity. He even asserts his own spiritual authority by referencing the bible. Clearly, we can see that the nature of this conflict is not to eliminate spiritual authority, but rather for the monarchy to better control this authority. Henry seeks to accomplish the complex task of asserting his own sovereign power, while still respecting Christianity and the church, which were still very powerful and a major source of his power. One example of this appeal is , “But you construed our humility as fear, and so you were emboldened to rise up even against the royal power itself, granted to us by God. You dared to threaten to take the kingship away from us… as though the kingship and empire were in your hand and not in the hand of God” (259). By his strong language, we can see that Henry believes himself to be in no way subservient to the pope. Henry claims that his power is granted directly from god, and that the pope is overstepping his bounds. While he still respects Christianity and refers to himself as humble, Henry is not compelled by the spiritual authority of Gregory in this instance. Interestingly, Henry also claims that Gregory does not, in fact, have spiritual authority and rose to his position through secular means. He writes, “For you have risen by these steps: namely, by cunning,
which the monastic profession abhors, to money; by money to favor; by favor to the sword. By the sword you have come to the throne of peace…” (259). From this, it is clear that Henry does not believe that Gregory is a holy representative of god and St. Peter, but simply a man who used secular means like money, political alliances and military to become pope. Henry also references St. Peter in relation to the papal throne, in a similar manner to Stephen II. He writes, “The true pope Saint Peter also exclaims, ‘Fear God, honor the king’” (259) as well as, “Let another mount the throne of Saint Peter, another who will not cloak violence with religion but who will teach the pure doctrine of Saint Peter” (259). In these instances, the king shows respect to the papal office, and admits that his power is rooted in the papacy. However, he also gives himself the authority to dictate how a pope should behave by condemning Gregory’s actions and saying that he should be replaced. In response to Henry’s strong declarations against him, Gregory retaliated with equally strong words and actions. In addition to excommunicating the king, in Letter to Hermann of Metz Gregory VII outlines his arguments against the king and his basis for papal authority over the king. Gregory also claims that he has the support of Saint Peter by saying, “But as regards the other matters about which you have questioned me, would that blessed Peter might answer through me, for he is often honored or suffers injury in me, his servant such as I am “ (260). The pope asserts here that he has the authority to speak in the name of Peter and implies that by injuring Gregory, Henry is in turn harming Peter. This exchange shows the complex nature of spiritual authority and how easily the same religious reasoning can be used to support two opposing ideas. Gregory also uses the threat of excommunication by writing, “...has not been ashamed to draw others to be excommunicated by communicating with him” (260). Here the pope uses his power of excommunication to try to separate Henry from his allies, through threat of excommunication for anyone who communicated with the king.
Passage Analysis - Act 5 Scene 1, lines 115-138. Shakespeare’s ‘King Henry IV Part I’ centres on a core theme: the conflict between order and disorder. Such conflict is brought to light by the use of many vehicles, including Hal’s inner conflict, the country’s political and social conflict, the conflict between the court world and the tavern world, and the conflicting moral values of characters from each of these worlds. This juxtaposition of certain values exists on many levels, and so is both a strikingly present and an underlying theme throughout the play.
After many failed attempts to obtain a divorce from his first wife Catherine of Aragon, King Henry VIII took momentous steps that led to "The Reformation," a significant occurrence in the history of religion. Prior to the reformation, all of England's inhabitants including King Henry VIII prescribed to Catholicism. In fact, King Henry VIII was such a strong supporter that he was given the title "Defender of the Faith" by the pope for his efforts in protecting Catholicism against the Protestants. However, all these changed upon the pope's denial of Henry's request for a divorce.
Henry implemented many methods in order to control the nobility with varying success. Henry sought to limit the power of the nobles as he was acutely aware the dangers of over mighty subjects with too much power and little love for the crown or just wanted a change like Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick who deposed two kings to replace them. Also Henry’s own rise to the throne was helped by nobles dislike towards Richard III. By restricting the nobles Henry wanted to reduce the power of the nobles and possible threats against him and return the nobles from their quasi king status to leaders in their local areas but under the power of the crown.
It isn't as simple as saying that the church and state were connected or they weren't. For example, Henry VIII and Calvinism both utilized a strong church state connection, but Henry VIII used the church to empower the state, while Calvinism did the opposite. Some used the church and state relationship for gain of power and control, while for others it was truly what they believed was right. Church and state relationships are complex and deep. Each one was unique and added to the individual religion in its own
The given documents are examples of the monarch’s ability to assert their authority through word. The different proclamations illustrate the problems of the time, and how the assumed power of the monarch addressed it. It is assumed that their power goes to include power over the church and all papal authority, ultimate power over Parliament, power over other lands, and it goes as far as suggesting that their power has been bestowed upon them by God. The assumed nature and extent of the Tudors’ power alters over time, each king reacting to a different situation. King Henry VII establishes a strong and clear claim to the crown for the Tudors when there were doubts about his claim. King Henry VIII extends the power of the monarch by annexing the
In the play Henry V written by Shakespeare. Henry was presented as the ideal Christian king. His mercy, wisdom, and other characteristics demonstrated the behavior of a Christian king. Yet at the same time he is shown to be man like any other. The way he behaves in his past is just like an ordinary man. But in Henry’s own mind he describes himself as “the mirror of all Christian kings” and also a “true lover of the holly church.
The reemphasis of ancient Greek and Roman texts proffered alternatives for many to satisfy their religious needs. This helped contribute to the abolishment of the Church’s imposition of its absolute truth and its claim to ultimate authority. As the church lost power, so did the political units. The bonds between church and state began to erode. Feudalism declined, hence giving rise to new political opportunities.
The modern state seeks its self-preservation above all else, and history reveals that governments are more than willing to exercise their monopoly on force and coercion in order to cement and defend their authority (5-6). Normally, unified social bodies such as the Church seek to counteract the dominance of the state through their public and political influence. However, when the Church simultaneously abdicates its political connections and powers and interiorizes itself within individual Catholics, it frees the state to exercise its will with little backlash: “Once the church has been individualized and eliminated as Christ’s body in the world, only the state is left to impersonate God”
The father and son relationship is one of the most important aspects through the youth of a young man. In Shakespeare’s play Henry IV, he portrays the concept of having "two fathers". King Henry is Hal’s natural father, and Falstaff is Hal’s moral father. Hal must weigh the pros and cons of each father to decide which model he will emulate. Falstaff, who is actually Hal’s close friend, attempts to pull Hal into the life of crime, but he refuses.
The purpose of this question is to quench the personal interest that I have in Church history. As we began more dive more and more into Church history, my interest skyrocketed. I hope to learn more about the struggles that were overcome in Catholicism. The turmoil that stood as a result of the “church vs state” tension also gave me a purpose to learn more about how the present separation of Church and State began. Making the right decisions has not always been my best quality, and knowing that I am not alone, I evaluated Pope Clement X...
The Restoration of Strong Government Under Henry VII Henry VII’s relations with the nobility are controversial, but views of his success are subjective. When discussing degrees of success, there must be criteria on which to judge the subject. In this case ‘restoration of strong government’ can be measured by a close study of what Henry VII set out to achieve and whether he fulfilled his aims. He appreciated the nobility’s importance in local governance and did not want to ‘crush’ them, but merely control and limit their power, preventing rebellion and civil war.
During the central Middle Ages, territories were expanding greatly. In previous centuries, smaller territorial united had been much more prevalent, thus making control easier. However, with the advent of larger territorial units as time went on, challenges to rulers began to emerge. This were mainly centred around the conflict between the central power and the regions, as was seen in both France and England, which posed a substantial threat to the stability of government. Therefore, rulers saw that they needed to take steps in order to combat this situation. Most importantly, they saw that they needed to created a shared national identity in order unite the mass of people who were now in their territory. As argued by Bernard Guenée, the stability of the state was enhanced during the medieval period when its people were aware of a common identity that they wanted to sustain; control relied upon the population’s love for the country. The main ways in which this was achieved included created a shared national history, a shared religious identity, and shared enemies, as well as through the use of language. But inciting patriotism was not the only way in which rulers coped with the challenges of larger territorial units; they also took active steps towards the centralisation of power. The methods used to achieve this included the creation of representative bodies such as parliament, capital cities, and law. It was these steps taken by rulers that allowed the challenges of the larger territorial units to be met.
The role of religion in politics is a topic that has long been argued, and has contributed to the start of wars, schisms (both political and religious), and other forms of inter and intra-state conflict. This topic, as a result of its checkered past, has become quite controversial, with many different viewpoints. One argument, put forth by many people throughout history, is that religion and the government should remain separate to avoid any conflicting interests. This view also typically suggests that there is one, or several, large and organized religions like the Roman Catholic Church, which would be able to use their “divine” authority to sway the politics of a given state by promising or threatening some form of godly approval or disapproval. By leveraging their divine power, individual figures within a religion, as well as the religion as a whole, could gain secular power for themselves, or over others. A second view, which was developed by many theologians through history, suggests that that without religion there would be a general lack of morality in the people and leaders of a given state, which would give way to poor political decisions that would not be in the interest of the people and perhaps even God (or the gods). This argument, however, does not address the fact that morality can exist without religion. In sociology, it is commonly accepted that social norms, which include morality, can result from any number of things. Religion, laws, or the basic desire of survival can all create these norms, so it suffices to say that as a society, our morals reflect our desire to live in relative peace through the creation of laws that serve to help us to survive. The argument of whether or not religion and politics should mix...
The Church was organised into a hierarchical system that sustained the Church’s stability and control over the people and lower clergy, by organising them into different groups. First there were the ordinary believers, the citizens of the kingdom who followed the Christian faith. Then there was the clergy, the members who devoted their lives to the church. Each group of the clergy was assigned specific functions by the clergy nobles to help run the Church competently. Amongst all the clergy associates, the Pope was at the top, he had the equivalent if not more power than the ruling monarch and was in charge of all political affairs and administered the clergy. He was able to dictate political laws and even comment on the Monarch’s decisions. Under the Pope, there were the bishops. The bishops directed church courts and managed cases correlated to the public such as marriage, wills and other public predicaments. Priests held religious services that consisted of sacraments, baptisms and the usual Sabbath services. The monks and nuns received manual labour that required helping clean the monasteries and assist the needy. Educated monks copied manuscripts of medieval and ancient knowledge in the Scriptorium. Finally...
For thousands of years, religion has exerted a great influence over economic and political life. Even today religion is called upon to support rulers, contacts and other legal procedures.