Racism In African American Society

Research Problem

In American society, educational attainment is connected to the notions of higher qualities of living, economic stability, and socioeconomic status. Yet for African Americans the path to degree attainment in predominantly white universities is extremely difficult due to negative stereotyping and experienced racial microaggressions associated with being African American (Solórzano, Ceja & Yosso, 2000). This struggle is even more difficult for African Americans, in particular African American females (AAF), pursing the doctoral degree which is regarded as one of the highest levels of education in the United States (National Center for Education, 2015).

The National Center for Education Statistics (2015) accounts for 20.2 million

I reviewed the literature on racial microaggressions, racial stereotypes, and the “double consciousness” pertaining to AAF’s place in society and academia. The literature review will then discuss racial climate in predominantly white institutions, and include empirical research explaining the impact racial climate, racial microaggressions, stereotyping and the “double consciousness” has on AAF’s desire to pursue doctoral degrees.

Evolution of Racism

Race has become a complex and toilsome term in our society’s vocabulary that impacts every member within it. In a biological sense, race is defined as the grouping of individuals with shared physical characteristics (most often phenotypes). Social constructs also aid in the shaping of the term race by grouping together individuals of similar skin color, physical characteristics and corresponding behavioral traits (Sussman, 2014). As a result of the differences in physical and behavioral characteristics, racial “groups” are formed and begin to thrive as their own entities. As these racial groups continue to flourish, certain races begin to have dominance over other racial groups which in turn births racism. The history of the United States demonstrates that the racial “color line” is a socially constructed category, allowing the Caucasian race to have dominance and superiority over all other races, making them minorities (Banks,

These forms of subtle aggressions are often abrupt everyday behavioral, verbal, or environmental indignities that infer hostile, negative, or derogatory racial slights, stereotypes and insults toward minorities (Patton, 2009). Racial microaggressions include phrases such as “When I look at you I don’t see color”, or “I have several black friends” (Sue, Capodilupo, Torino, Bucceri, Holder, Nadal & Esquin, 2007). In an academic setting, racial microaggressions can create a feeling of animosity and alienation for AAF’s striving to attain a degree in higher education. Often times, covert racism and stereotypes toward AAF’s in graduate programs are not acknowledged, nor are they noticed by Caucasian classmates or faculty members who unknowingly dispense them (Mabokela & Green, 2001).Yet to the AAF’s who experience these behaviors they are a tangible expression of prejudice. This prejudice can cause AAF’s to do poorly in their studies and generate feelings of anger, isolation, hopelessness, and confusion (Svokos, 2015; Patton,