The remains of ancient plants can provide a wealth of archaeological information about a site, with many methods being available to the archaeologist engaged in extracting this data. Perhaps one of the most widely-known of these techniques, possibly because of its attractive nature, is pollen analysis - a technique developed in the early years of the twentieth century by, like so many archaeological techniques, a geologist -- the Norwegian Lennart van Post. To understand the technique and the uses to which it may be put, we must first examine the biological nature of the material itself.
Because of a hard outer shell - the exine - pollen is particularly resistant to chemical attack and will survive in most conditions; the only environments which are truly hostile to this shell are abrasion, such as may be the case on sandy sites, and oxidation. However, the most favourable conditions for preservation of the pollen record are acidic, anaerobic sites such as peat bogs. This high degree of survivability combines with another factor inherent in the nature of pollen - the large amount produced - to make pollen analysis one of the most important tools available to the archaeologist. Though one further factor in the make-up of pollen enhances its value, namely the wide morphological variation between pollen from different plant species, most of which can be detected and classified using normal laboratory equipment.
Pollen analysis is a technique which demands a high level of skill on the part of the excavator, scientist and interpreter to enable it to fulfil its potential. Collection of pollen samples can prove troublesome, the risk of cross-contamination is significant and efforts must be made to minimize the effect of any excavational bias. The number and ratio of pollen grains present in a sample can also be skewed by factors such as the orientation of the site and the nature of the pollen grains themselves, for example, trees such as pine produce much greater quantities of pollen than species such as oak and thus have a tendency to overrepresent themselves in the pollen record.
Once collected the pollen is extracted from the soil, usually in the laboratory to avoid contamination, and analysed using a light, or scanning electron microscope (SEM). The wide differentiation in the size, shape and colour of the pollen grains enables identification to be made down to genera level. Following identification, the individual exines in a sub-set of the sample are quantified and plotted on a pollen analysis diagram, usually as a percentage of the whole.
The second question frequently asked regarding Schliemann’s legacy examines his motives and skill as an excavator: was Heinrich Schliemann a good archaeologist? This question has two sides. First, did Schliemann use the best techniques and technology available to him at time of his first excavation? Second, did he have the same values that other archaeologists have?
...ts were labelled with the upper case letters which represented the material types and a numeric letter. The artifacts were placed in different boxes. The artifact analysis was then conducted and the characteristics such as tool type and material type of each artifact were recorded on the artifact catalog forms. The material samples of lithic tools, faunal remains, and ceramics remains were compare with existing artifacts to identify their material type. The Vernier scale was used for the measurements of each lithic tools.
The alluviam sediments (sand, gravel, and silt) were deposited in a fluvial environment along the creek. Sand, gravel, and silt-sized grains are commonly
According to documents E and F pollen seasons are lengthening, therefore more pollen is able to be produced during the seasons since they are longer. This is an allergenic part of plants that are causing people to have more reactions especially if they suffer from asthma, hay fever, and any allergies. Climate change is not only increasing pollen production, but also other allergenic plants. These longer allergy seasons are an important consequence of climate change because it is putting more and more people's health at
Barnett, J. R. (2004). Langenheim, J.H. Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology and ethnobotany. Annals Of Botany, 93(6), 784-785. doi:10.1093/aob/mch103
Signs of farming in Greece date back to the period 6200 to 5300 BC where most systematically cultivate of barley , millet , oats , wheat , lentils , peas and acorns is stated . Alongside they used many wild plants ,trees and their products such as olives, almonds , peanuts , grapes , cherries , plums and pears . Later we find evidence of findings for other species cultivated or found in the wild such as apples , figs , blackberries , wild strawberries , pomegranates , dill , capers , oregano, coriander etc.
Examining excavated artifacts can tell researchers a lot about the people who left them behind. The artifacts can hint at characteristics such as how people lived, what time period they were from, what they ate, and how their families were structured. The identification of the three bags of artifacts was completed by utilizing artifacts that helped to infer the time period it was from.
Fruiting heads often remain on trees over winter. Fair seed crops occur every year and bumper crops about every 3 years. The staminate and pistillate of Sweetgum is monoeciouse. The small, greenish flowers bloom from march to early May, depending on latitude and weather conditions. Both the staminate and pistillate flowers occur in heads. The staminate inflorescences are racemes; the solitary pistillate flowers are globose heads that that form the multiple head, 2.5 to 3.8cm in diameter, of small, two-celled capsule. The lustrous green color of the fruiting heads fades to yellow as maturity is reached in September to November. The beaklike capsules open at this time, and the small winged seeds, one or two per capsule, are then readily disseminated by wind. However, the seed balls can be safely collected for seed examination several weeks before ball discoloration occurs without harming the seed. Empty flowers are quit sensitive to cold and often damaged by frost.
In this ancient place there were all different kinds of remnants from what looked to be a permanent settlement, which led us to believe that it was formed in the Neolithic period. Scientists also believe from the skull fragments found that the Cro-Magnons were the hominid type that inhabited the area. Some of the fossils found helped to prove that the settlement was immobile because the fossilized plants were apparently in a specific arrangement, showing that they were planted purposefully. Some of the cotton grown in this area was apparently used to make woven cloth. Remnants of corn meal were used to make some of the mortar for their establishments, along with mud and sand. They also made their bricks, which were much larger than today’s, from mud. Some of the teeth from the Cro-Magnons were found to be stained. They were thought to be from the coffee ingested due to the high amounts of caffeine deposits in the bones.
In order to determine the recovered data correctly, the archaeological context of the cremation remnants should be taken into account. As Cremation is not simply burning a body, there are myriad stages, technologies, and actions involved which can vary between communities and across time (Thompson, 2015, 1).The context can be influenced by several factors that are of influence on the quantity and quality of data that will be found. The type of deposit, taphonomic factors and disturbance can affect the amount of bone that will be recovered. Additionally, the contextual factors can influence the condition of the bones such as bone survival and the level of fragmentation. The degree of fragmentation is be caused by the circumstances inside (e.g. dehydration; McKinley, 2013, 162) and outside (e.g. stages of manipulation, burial microenvironment and excavation procedures; McKinley, 1994b) of the bone (McKinley, 2013,
FitzPatrick, E. A. 1971. Pedology: A systematic approach to soil science. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
One of the most key examples of understanding human culture through archaeology is the topic of climate and the environment. As seen through history, there is an intricate relationship between the environment and life on earth. Through extensive research, archaeologists have the ability to take note of minor cultural changes that can be attributed to the environment during a particular time period. These changes include, shifts in methods of food collection, changes in the artwor...
Insect pollination as we all know, is the process that enables reproduction and fertilization by the transfer of pollen performed by insects. Insects are some of the oldest pollinators of plants. Pollinating insects date back to 140 million years ago. Since then, due to how effective insect pollinators are, these flowering plants have become the major group of terrestrial vascular plants. Flowering plants, also known as angiosperms, have imperative roles within our ecosystems, both natural and agricultural. For instance, insects provide food, fiber and shelter for wildlife and humankind alike (2007). It is commonly know that in humans, high levels of fruit and vegetable consumption are associated with decreased risk of chronic disease (Calderone 2012). Aside from these important roles, plants have also been considered as a viable option for fuel sources (Calderone 2012). There are around 300,00 species of flowering plants in the world and without pollination, the reproductive process would be very difficult since pollination causes the production of seeds (Calderone 2012). Of the 300,000 plant species worldwide, a little over 3,000 of these plants have been used as a source of food. Close to 300 of these species are grown around the world today and only 12 of these plants make up about 90 percent of the food sources in our world. These 12 include the grains...
Some of the common allergens that disrupt the immune system are animal dander, molds, and dust mites. When you first come into contact with these allergens, your immune system treats the allergen as an invader and mobilizes an attack. The immune system does this by generating large amounts of a type of antibody (a disease-fighting protein) specific to the particular allergen you're allergic to. In the case of pollen allergy, the antibody is specific for each type of pollen: one antibody may be produced to react against oak pollen and another against ragweed pollen. This antibody attaches itself to certain cells in your body. The next time you come into contact with the allergen, the allergen attaches to the antibody like a key fitting into a lock, causing the release of powerful inflammatory chemicals, including histamine. These chemicals move into various parts of your body, such as your respiratory system, to cause allergy symptoms including runny nose, itchy eyes, and sneezing, among others.
Archaeologists commonly offer differing hypotheses for the origins of food production. Various theoretical approaches have attempted to identify the circumstances that caused people to shift to deliberate cultivation and do...