Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs) are a class of compounds that mimic DNA and bind complementary to single strand DNA (ssDNA) and RNA. Currently, the only PNAs observed on Earth are created artificially. However, it has been hypothesized that PNAs were precursors to DNA and RNA. PNAs are important to the field of astrobiology because they may be an alternative information molecule that life elsewhere in the galaxy uses.
Information molecules are molecules that all life forms, from viruses to humans, use for the passage of genetic information from one generation to the next. Information molecules are also provide the instructions for cell functions [1]. On Earth, two types of information molecules are used. There are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is a double-helical structure that is transcribed by RNA and in turn translated into proteins. Protein molecules carry out all cellular functions. This is central dogma of biology on Earth. However, synthetically made PNAs have shown that DNA and RNA are not the only information molecules that can exist.
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PNA molecules are molecules that can be recognized by DNA but is more stable.
An important characteristic of PNAs is their backbone. The backbone of DNA is a deoxyribose-phosphodiester. This backbone is somewhat weak because it is negatively charged. In comparison, the backbone of PNAs is neutral, allowing for stronger binding [1]. In fact, PNA binds more strongly to DNA and RNA than DNA itself does. Chemically, PNAs are related to both proteins and DNA. Additionally, PNAs were not difficult to synthesize and are chemically stable. It was found that when PNAs bind to DNA they are efficient and have high sequence selectivity
[1]. Due to the fact that PNAs form readily and are stable compounds, it is not unreasonable that they were involved in pre-biotic chemistry. This is further supported by how freely these compounds bind with DNA and RNA. Furthermore, if life exists elsewhere in the galaxy, they may use PNAs as information molecules instead of DNA or RNA. This is supported by the work of Steven Benner, which suggests the charge on DNA exists because it formed in water [2]. Therefore, other solvents used for life may result in PNAs, as well as having formed in Earth before a substantial amount of water accumulated. The synthesis of PNAs has opened up the possibility for biotechnological applications. PNAs can be used to substitute DNA for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. PNA can be used for antigene and antisense therapy, which requires specific binding [1]. These therapies can be used to target pathogenic bacteria, instead of using the standard method of antibiotics. PNAs can also be used to improve DNA-RNA hybridization procedures. PNAs are good DNA probes and these procedures can benefit by the differences in between the two molecules [1]. PNAs have been used for cancer detection, diagnosis of Epstein-Barr infection, and to analyze telomeric ends of chromosomes [1]. These are only a few examples of what PNAs have been used for so far and more applications will surely reveal themselves as the technology improves. PNAs are a class of information molecule that mimics and binds strongly to DNA. It is more stable than DNA and is easily synthesized. Therefore PNAs may have acted as precursors to DNA and RNA and may act as the main information molecule in non-Earth life forms. So far PNAs have shown to have a range of biotechnological applications. Further study is requires to better understand and use these molecules.
Miller, Kenneth R. and Joseph S. Levine. “Chapter 12: DNA and RNA.” Biology. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2002. Print.
In order to do this a polymer of DNA “unzips” into its two strands, a coding strand (left strand) and a template strand (right strand). Nucleotides of a molecule known as mRNA (messenger RNA) then temporarily bonds to the template strand and join together in the same way as nucleotides of DNA. Messenger RNA has a similar structure to that of DNA only it is single stranded. Like DNA, mRNA is made up of nucleotides again consisting of a phosphate, a sugar, and an organic nitrogenous base. However, unlike in DNA, the sugar in a nucleotide of mRNA is different (Ribose) and the nitrogenous base Thymine is replaced by a new base found in RNA known as Uracil (U)3b and like Thymine can only bond to its complimentary base Adenine. As a result of how it bonds to the DNA’s template strand, the mRNA strand formed is almost identical to the coding strand of DNA apart from these
Every single living organism has deoxyribonucleic acid, but their cells vary. Some viruses use RNA though. The deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, found in organisms contain all the instructions necessary for creating different proteins that have different functions, but the molecule cannot leave the nucleus; this is where ribonucleic acid, or RNA, comes into play (Hall, 7). Deoxyribonucleic acid has multiple different components that come together in a structure that differs to the structure of ribonucleic acid (Hall, 9). Ribonucleic acid is very versatile with its build and functions. In the lives of DNA and RNA, each goes through processes known as replication, translation, meiosis and mitosis (Hall, 16, 18). During one of these processes, mutations can occur; one of these mutations can be the cause of oncogenic viruses (Hall, 53). RNA is an essential molecule that deals with coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes (Epigenetics Modifications and Viral Infections, 2007-2014). When it comes down to epigenetic alterations in oncogenic viruses, it leads to the discovery of how viruses can infect our cells through inheritance such as some cancers. Deoxyribose and ribose are two nucleic acids that provide clues in the epigenetic alterations in early oncogenic viruses.
Since the days of World War I trenches, men and women of the Chemical Corps have honorably served the needs of America’s Army. On the battlefield and off, courageous CBRN Soldiers have had an essential role in preserving our country’s freedom. As a Dragon Soldier it is important to know the history of the Corps (U.S. Army Chemical School, n.d.). Most of the Soldier’s in the Army think that Chemical Soldier’s are the ones you see that one time of the year for mandatory training; such as round robin type training or the CBRN gas chamber. However, as the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq started there was a need for Soldier’s that had a certain mind-set. Those that could and would do things that were necessary at the time of war that other regular Soldier’s would not or could not do. Those types of Soldier’s are typically suited for life in U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC). This paper is a brief history of The Chemical Corps, USASOC/Delta Force, and a Chemical Soldier who gave the ultimate sacrifice, SFC Mickey E. Zaun.
You have asked the following questions: “We have a 3 story Type V residential building being protected with a 13R system. The first floor is a parking garage. Is the concealed combustible space between the first and second floor require to be protected? ” In response to your question, we have reviewed the 2010 edition of NFPA 13R you indicated as the applicable standard. Our informal interpretation is that the concealed combustible space is not required to be protected.
This DNP project is a quality improvement initiative that will include implementation of a newly developed interdisciplinary algorithm resource tool and unit-specific policy. This interdisciplinary group of will is composed of staff members, managers, case management, physicians, security, and nursing education. The DNP leader will provide evidence-based literature for supplemental tools The algorithm will serve as a decision-making tool to the bedside nurse with standardization to screening practices, scripting, and case management referrals. The unit-specific policy will provide structured support for labor and delivery nurses with screen patients.
My career goal at this point of my life is that I want complete my Associates Degree in Human Services while maintaining a full time employment at well know urban medical facility that is constantly busy environment. My factor that influenced me to switch my intended degree is that I truly love the type of work I currently as a Certified Nursing Assistant. There are the positives in this job field and well as the negatives.
Tsou, J. A., Hagen, J. A., Carpenter, C. L., & Laird-Offringa, I. A. (2002, August 05). DNA
This career can not just be found in any city because nurses do not need to go to school in the same city they want to work in. This job is done inside. The job benefits of being a nurse is that you will make a difference, the work can be diverse and interesting, you can work with flexibility. Some job drawbacks are that you can consume germs and viruses, sometimes it can be overwhelming, patients may not appreciate your work, you may have to work for the holidays, see bad situations, and you can get a bad headache. I hope you choose to make a difference and become a nurse!
Lyons, R.H. (2004). How do we Sequence DNA? In A Primer in DNA Structure and Function. Retrieved from http://seqcore.brcf.med.umich.edu/doc/educ/dnapr/sequencing.html
When I joined 24 hour Fitness, my main goals were to see a physical transformation and to improve my health. For many months, I tried to reach these goals by working out on my own. I honestly had no clue what to do when I came to the gym or how to make an effective plan for myself. After seeing no results, I came to a point where I felt like I was wasting my time. I knew I needed help if I was going to reach the goals I set for myself, but personal training was just not an option for me.. When I heard about TC24, I was immediately interested. I was drawn in by the fact TC24 gave me a budget friendly option of the formal, structured training I desired.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a self-replicating molecule or material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent in chromosomes. It encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. Simply put, DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce. The discovery and use of DNA has seen many changes and made great progress over many years. James Watson was a pioneer molecular biologist who is credited, along with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, with discovering the double helix structure of the DNA molecule. The three won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1962 for their work (Bagley, 2013). Scientist use the term “double helix” to describe DNA’s winding, two-stranded chemical structure. This shape looks much like a twisted ladder and gives the DNA the power to pass along biological instructions with great precision.
Williams Doug Parker William Doug Parker, also known as Doug Parker has held the office as the Chief Officer and Chairman of American Airlines Inc, since 2013. In his past he has also held office as Chief Executive Officer of American Airlines Group Inc and has also been the Chairman since June 03, 2014. Doug also serves as the Chief Executive officer of the US Airways Inc. Doug Parker has made his self-known and a good face for himself in the Airline business. Doug Parker is connected to four board members and four different organizations across seven different industries.
The amount of information encoded by the genes within a cell is enormous, although some will never be expressed while others occasionally during its life cycle. For example some genes that encode for ribosomal RNA are being expressed continuously because they are responsible with the formation of proteins in the cell’s cytoplasm. Specific RNA molecules and proteins are expressed in all cells at all times, their genes going under the name of housekeeping genes. They are responsible with the maintenance of the cells and can aid geneticists recognize their function (Brown, 2011).