More specifically to memory encoding and retrieval as they relate to neurobiological structures, Crane and Duggan (2009), found during a study of 49 participants with psychopathologies, 26 of whom reported a history of child sexual abuse, that earlier age of onset of the abuse was associated with a greater level of overgeneral autobiographical memory.
Most research in this area has been conducted using adult participants relying on self-report of childhood trauma. One study, however, involved testing the autobiographical memories of children placed into two different age groups (Valentino, Toth, and Cicchetti, 2009). Surprisingly, the investigators found that the older age group seemed to experience more overgeneral memories than did the younger children (Valentino, Toth, and Cicchetti, 2009).
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Based on these results and previously published work (Conway and Pleydell-Pearce, 2000), the authors speculated that the older group may have experienced a greater level of overgeneral memory due to developmental differences in executive control, which may have contributed to overgenerality through increased ability of inhibitory control (Valentino, Toth, and Cicchetti, 2009). Williams, et al.
(2007), proposed a popular CaR-FA-X model in which there was an association among overgeneral autobiographical memory, capture and rumination (CaR), functional avoidance (FA), and executive control (X), but the exact associations were unclear. In a 10-year, longitudinal study involving 466 participants, Sumner, et al. (2014), sought to further clarify the relationships among these functions and overgenerality of memories. Using multiple assessments during the course of the study, the researchers found the greatest indicator of relationships between capture and rumination, executive control and overgeneral memories and suggested that these two functions were the most crucial for understanding overgeneral autobiographical memory (Sumner, et al., 2014). However, the researchers did concede that no one function appeared to lead to overgeneral memories – a point made obvious by the differences in functional relationships of those with and without a history of depression. Sumner, et al. (2014), did not find a significant relationship between functional avoidance and reduced autobiographical memories, even though many researchers have said the relationship
exists. Avoidance Coping Although a case could be made for the positive effects of avoidance coping as it pertains to affect-regulation in the face of trauma, whether or not it promotes reduced specificity of memories and, therefore, becomes maladaptive, is an area that deserves further study. Some research has indicated that the use of an avoidant coping style in the face of unpleasantness, especially in early childhood, may contribute to a lifelong lack of specificity of autobiographical memories (Hermans, Defranc, Raes, Williams, and Eelen, 2005; Wessel, Merckelbach, and Dekkers, 2002). In order to test the association between memory and avoidant coping styles, Hermans and colleagues persuaded 68 student participants to complete autobiographical memory tests, along with several measures to test avoidance (Hermans, et al., 2005). The results of this study indicated that specificity of autobiographical memory among the participants was significantly negatively associated with avoidant coping. Wessel, Merckelbach, and Dekkers (2005), in studying 40 subjects, 25 of whom were psychiatric patients who had been exposed to childhood wartime atrocities, concluded that the presence of intrusive memories and avoidance of trauma memories predicted less specificity in autobiographical memories.
Repressed vs. false memories has been a critical debate in criminal cases and daily life problems. Throughout the years many people has claimed to recover repressed memories with the simplest triggers varying from a gaze to hypnosis. However, a large number of repressed memories claimed are considered as false memories because the images were induced through hypnosis and recalled during a therapy sesion. In the film “divided memories” the main intention was to inform the audience the importance of repressed memories and how those memories can change the lives of the people involved, whether the memory was considered repressed or false. It shows different cases of women being victims of sexual abuse in childhood and how they had those memories repressed. Additionally, the film
Those who are in favor of retrieved memories state that these memories can be repressed and remain unattainable for years until an individual seeks therapy, where these memories can often be uncovered and trauma related to them can be treated (Freyd, 1994). On the other hand, some individuals have expressed concerns with the concept of repressed memories since, according to them, there is little scientific evidence that can support the theory (Patihis, Ho, Tingen, Lilienfeld & Loftus, 2014). In other words, cases where individuals experience traumatic events but often lack memories of these, often do not provide sufficient reliable evidence to make credible arguments. Memory research offers further insight into the controversial topic of “memory wars” by explaining if the notion of repressing memories and placing them into the unconscious is a feasible hypothesis. Furthermore, research presented in this brief will discuss the reliability and usefulness of using recovered memories as evidence in a court cases. Due to the controversial nature of recovered memories in judicial courts and scientific communities, it is important to consider research in the area to determine truthfulness in allegations involving recovered memories, as these have previously posed
McNally, R. J., Clancy, S. A., Barrett, H. M., Parker, H. A., Ristuccia, C. S., & Perlman, C. A. (2006). Autobiographical memory specificity in adults reporting repressed, recovered, or continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse. Cognition & Emotion, 20(3/4), 527-535. doi:10.1080/02699930500342779
In contrast to more traditional therapies such as client centered therapy and psychoanalytic therapy there is little attention paid to childhood recollections. Cognitive therapists tend to focus on the “here-and-now”.
In my opinion, one of the main thematic topics in Noggin was being stuck in time. The article that I decided to connect to Noggin is “When Memories Never Fade, The Past Can Poison The Present” by Alix Spiegel. This article is about a woman with highly superior autobiographical memory; a condition where a person has the inability to forget. Alexandra, the woman with HSAM, states that “it [HSAM] separates her from other people her age because they can’t understand why she’s so focused on things that have already happened” (Speigel). Her condition relates to Noggin because Travis cleary remembers everything before the surgery as if it were yesterday. His lucid memories cause it to be difficult to move on. Like Alexandra, this eventually causes problems in his relationships. In the book, we can see Travis trying to get Cate back even though she is engaged. For Alexandra, her problem is that she simply hasn’t really dated. For both Travis and Alexandra, being unable to forget is more of a curse than a blessing.
Recovered memories of childhood trauma and abuse has become one of the most controversial issues within the field of psychology. Controversy surrounding repressed memory - sometimes referred to as the memory wars – reached its’ peak in the early 1990s, where there was a rise in the number of people reporting memories of childhood trauma and abuse that had allegedly been repressed for many years (Lindsay & Read, 2001). There are a number of different factors that have contributed to the dispute surrounding recovered memories. Firstly, there is an ongoing debate about whether these types of memories actually exist or whether these accusations arose as a result of suggestive therapeutic procedures. In particular, this debate focuses on two main
Gustafsson, Hanna C., et al. "Intimate Partner Violence And Children’S Memory." Journal Of Family Psychology 27.6 (2013): 937-944. PsycARTICLES. Web. 11 Dec. 2013.
I could say without doubt that both my grades and my sporting achievements caused great satisfaction and pride to my parents. As a child I could perceive it, and these events helped to reinforced and molded future behaviors. During my teenage years come to I had much difficulty with love relationships even at time having inferiority complex after a breakup. My relationship with my father was not good until I reached adulthood, when I decided to take the initiative to improve it. Although I forgave my father, the shame of the slap is a ghost that hunts me once in a while till this day. Research studies conducted with adults show that intense vivid memories on autobiographical memory are repeated every decade; these studies also provide support for the psychosocial development theory of Erikson, (Conway & Holmes,
As we look into the effects of trauma on infants, we first must consider to what extent infants have memory. Many people assume that trauma cannot affect children who are too young to remember what happened. Perhaps, they even think that these infants are lucky because they experienced trauma so young that they grow up as if nothing had ever happened. However, studies show that we may need to think beyond our intuition.
Have you ever been an eyewitness at the scene of a crime? If you were, do you think that you would be able to accurately describe, in precise detail, everything that happened and remember distinct features of the suspect? Many people believe that yes they would be able to remember anything from the events that would happen and the different features of the suspect. Some people, in fact, are so sure of themselves after witnessing an event such as this that they are able to testify that what they think they saw was indeed what they saw. However, using an eyewitness as a source of evidence can be risky and is rarely 100% accurate. This can be proven by the theory of the possibility of false memory formation and the question of whether or not a memory can lie.
The human brain consists of many subsystems within the long-term memory. One of which is episodic memory. Episodic Memory is the remembrance of a phenomenal personal experience in terms of what, when, and where. This memory begins by retrieving information such as, words, objects, or faces; using this knowledge the episodic memory finds links and slowly transitions into recalling the complete memoir.
Recently there has been an extreme debate between "false" vs. "repressed" memories of abuse. A false memory is created when an event that really happened becomes confused with images produced by trying to remember an imagined event. The term false memory syndrome refers to the notion that illusionary and untrue memories of earlier child abuse can be 'recalled' by adult clients during therapy. In an increasingly polarized and emotive debate, extreme positions have been adopted, on one side by those believing that recovered memories nearly always represent actual traumatic experiences, for example, Fredrickson (1992) who argues for a 'repressed memory syndrome' and, on the other side, by those describing a growing epidemic of false memories of abuse which did not occur. (Gardner, 1992; Loftus, 1993; Ofshe & Watters, 1993; Yapko, 1994).
Many researchers link behavioral problems in adulthood to childhood abuse. One researcher says that "An adult who was sexually abused as a child has a greater chance of becoming violent, suicidal, and abusive to their children than an adult who was not abused sexually as a child" (Kliest 155). These characteristics could hinder a victim from living a normal lifestyle and having a family. Kliest also states, "Adults who were abused sexually as children will have a greater chance than those who were not of experiencing sexual dysfunction, such as flashbacks, difficulty in arousal, and phobic reactions to sexual intimacy" (156). Many researchers agree that childhood sexual abuse has a negative effect on an adult's personal relationships. Another researcher states, "A history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) appears to have an adverse impact on the quality of adult intimate relationships, and they report avoiding the development of close adult relationships because of their fear of rejection" (Whiffen 1103).
Questions about God, knowledge, freedom, and immortality are asked not only by philosophers, but by all individuals. Answers to these questions are extraordinarily contradictory because different beliefs and opinions are held by everyone. A major philosophical issue is that of personal identity and immortality. Most commonly, philosophers attempt to discover what makes someone the same person they were ten or 20 years ago. Some argue that memory is the key to personal identity: however, others object.
Beliefs we form in our childhood are the strongest factors that influence our personalities. “Early childhood memories are the source from which children start to form their beliefs about the world ” (Radwan 2). Traumatic events have a strong impact on our lives. Traumatic events shape our thinking beliefs and overall attitude. The most important past memories shape who we are and our belief system because they are the moments in our life that affect us the most. Past events have an effect on our current belief