The geographic location of the patient is important in the diagnosis of monkeypox, as the disease usually occurs in remote villages in the tropical African rain forests. Differentiation from chickenpox is important; the latter appears in successive crops so that lesions at various stages of development are visible at any time. In contrast with smallpox, the distribution of chickenpox is 'centripetal' with more lesions on the trunk than on the face and extremities. For definitive diagnosis, scabs can be forwarded to a reference laboratory where electron microscopy may confirm the presence of an orthopoxvirus and differentiate this virus from varicella virus. The virus can be cultured in tissue culture and identified by DNA restriction analysis. …show more content…
A viral culture should be obtained from an oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal swab.
A skin biopsy specimen of the vesiculopustular rash or a sample of the roof of an intact vesiculopustule should be analyzed. Tissue for PCR of DNA sequence-specific for the monkeypox virus may be obtained. Paired sera for acute and convalescent titers may be analyzed. Serum collected more than 5 days for IgM detection or serum collected more than 8 days after rash onset for IgG detection was most efficient for the detection of the monkeypox virus infection [26]. A Tzanck smear can help differentiate monkeypox from other nonviral disorders in the differential diagnosis. However, a Tzanck smear does not differentiate a monkeypox infection from smallpox or herpetic infections. Monkey pox cases were confirmed based on virus isolation or detection of the virus by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from a clinical specimen (skin biopsy or throat culture). Individuals who presented with fever and rash within 21 days of exposure to monkey pox and had serum positive for orthopox immunoglobulin M (IgM), but did not have culture- or PCR- positive clinical specimens, were classified as having a probable case of infection [26, 27]. The most reliable clinical sign differentiating monkeypox from smallpox and chickenpox is enlarged lymph nodes, especially the submental, submandibular, cervical, and inguinal nodes. Regarding exanthema, nonspecific lesions and inflammation of the pharyngeal, conjunctival, and genital mucosae have been observed. 5.1 Histological
Findings Histologically, papular lesions show acanthosis, individual keratinocyte necrosis, and basal vacuolization. This is accompanied by a superficial and deep perivascular, lymphohistiocytic infiltrate in the dermis. Lesions in the vesicular stage demonstrate spongiosis with reticular and ballooning degeneration. Multinucleated epithelial giant cells may also be seen. Pustular lesions are characterized by epidermal necrosis with numerous eosinophils and neutrophils, many displaying karyorrhexis. Necrosis may extend through full-thickness epidermis with sharp lateral demarcation from adjacent intact epidermis. The associated perivascular infiltrate includes eosinophils and neutrophils in addition to lymphocytes and histiocytes. Petechial lesions demonstrate secondary vasculitis. Amphophilic intranuclear structures suggestive of viral inclusions may be seen in keratinocytes. Immunohistochemistry staining for orthopox viral antigens can be performed in a reference laboratory. With electron microscopy, intracytoplasmic, round-to-oval inclusions with sausage-shaped structures centrally, measuring 200-300 µm, are observed. Inclusions are consistent with orthopox viruses, permitting differentiation from parapox and herpes viruses. 6. Treatment The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended smallpox vaccination within 2 weeks, ideally before 4 days, after a significant, unprotected exposure to a diseased animal or a confirmed human case [28]. Data from the African outbreaks suggest that prior smallpox vaccination confers 85% protection from monkeypox viral infection. Efficacy of vaccination was noted to be prolonged with protection noted even several years after vaccination, and the incidence of complications being reduced [7]. Since human infection with monkeypox virus is a rare disease, no benefit would be derived from vaccination with Vaccinia virus. Furthermore, smallpox vaccination cannot be undertaken in populations with high prevalence of HIV infection because of the risk of serious complications. Antiviral chemotherapeutic treatment is not a viable option in those remote places where the disease is likely to appear. The treatment would have to be administered in the very early stages of the disease and it is unlikely that the treatment could be made available in time. In addition, the treatment is not devoid of side effects.
In today's society, relationships of all different kinds become more and more accepted each day. However, when it comes to interracial relationships, people still hold opposing viewpoints on the matter. For the most part, peoples' viewpoints all boil down to two beliefs; the traditional belief and the popular culture belief. People who follow the traditional belief are seen as more proud of and loyal to their culture/heritage and tend to be more segregated than others. They feel that when someone of their own culture dates someone outside of their own culture, he or she is "wanting to escape" from his or her cultural identity. On the other hand, popular culture belief sees people not by the color of their skin nor by their culture, but rather
The Scopes Trial, formally known as The State of Tennessee vs. Scopes but given the nickname “The Monkey Trial”, has been credited as starting the popular legal dispute between evolution and creationism in the court, and its impact in the 20’s was immeasurable.
The 1920’s, also known as the “Roaring Twenties”, was a period of peace and prosperity that overshadowed the losses of the Great War. There were flappers, Prohibition; and widespread popularity of Jazz music. Apart from this culture, the Scopes Monkey Trial would become a widespread controversy between traditionalism and modernity. Traditionalists would have a more conservative view, while the Modernists would have a more liberal behavior.
I think the Scopes trial brought together a great cast of characters: three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan; America's best defense attorney, Clarence Darrow: and its most popular journalist, H. L. Mencken.
Edward Jenner, “the father of immunology”, was born on May 17, 1749. He was one of nine siblings and he was treated for smallpox for a very long period of his childhood. I predict that his treatment to small pox as an infant encouraged his work into creating the vaccine for smallpox itself. It is said that his work “saved more lives than the work of any other human”. He found the similarities of cowpox and smallpox, and then analyzed his experiments to conclude that previous cowpox patients had immunization to smallpox.
Shingles, herpes zoster, is a very contagious and painful rash, or blister that appears on the skin. These rashes most commonly appear on the sides of the body in stripes. The stripes are made up of many very painful blisters caused by a certain type of virus. The varicella zoster, most commonly known as the chicken pox virus attacks the nerve roots in that area. The herpes zoster virus is in the herpes family, including HSV, herpes simple virus, which causes cold sores, fever blisters, and genital herpes. (WebMD, 2011) Most people are required to get the chicken pox shot when they are children although some do not. The chicken pox shot helps to keep out the virus by keeping it dormant in the nerves. The varicella zoster virus stays in a few cells; this is how shingles appear suddenly. It appears when the dormant cells become active in the later years of life.
and ears, and in the mouth and pharynx. The causative virus has been shown to be
Smallpox is a very virulent disease that has many accompanying symptoms. The two major forms of smallpox, Variola major and Variola minor have many concurring symptoms that follow an identical course. However, major has some distinguishing symptoms that minor does not. These include hemorrhaging and internal and external bleeding. These extreme symptoms are the reason why major, the more common of the two forms, has a 30% fatality rate whereas minor only has a 1% fatality rate. If a person was fortunate and survived smallpox, they would be left with lifelong scars all over their body.
Ever since science began to explain the previously unexplainable, it has caused conflicts with religion. The Scopes “Monkey” Trial of Dayton, Tennessee was one of the most talked about trials in history because it was one of the first and most publicized times that this conflict occurred. The trial showed the schism between the faithful fundamentalists and the newly formed group of evolutionists. Although the jury was reminded that they only had to decide if Scopes had broken the law, the verdict was seen as much more than that. For one of the first times in history, it seemed as if the jury had to choose either religion or evolution. For the time being, there could not be both. The Scopes “Monkey” Trial revealed the ongoing conflict with faith and science and set a precedent for decades of conflict to come.
14) Davis, Charles, and Mary Nettleman, eds. "Typhus (Endemic, Murine, Epidemic)." medicinenet.com. N.p.. Web. 12 Mar 2014. .
It was spread very slowly and less broadly than other viral illnesses which took a long time to identify the infection in the first two weeks. Infection of smallpox started to grow between 7 to 10 days when the scabs formed into bruises. The signs and symptoms of this disease include high fever, widespread rashes, redness, muscle pain, headache, common cold, vomiting, nausea and many more. Consequently, the virus was found in the bone marrow along with bloodstream in huge numbers. There are different types of the smallpox disease with other classifications.
Although the Columbian Exchange allowed for the beneficial exchange of cultures, ideas, foods, and animals around the world during the 1450-1750 time period, it also had a dark side. One detrimental result of the Columbian Exchange would be the spreading of smallpox from Europe to the New World.
During one of his earlier apprenticeships, Jenner noticed milkmaids with a disease called cowpox. Cowpox is a close relative to smallpox and is only mild in humans. Pustules appear on the hands and a basic cold is also brought on. At Jenner’s young age he was able to link these two viruses together and come up with a theory for immunization. In 1796, while still attending medical school, Jenner decided to test this theory between smallpox and cowpox. He used a dairymaid, who was a patient of his named Sarah Nelms, who had contracted cowpox and had ripe pustules on her hands. Jenner realized this was his opportunity to test someone who had not contracted smallpox yet. He picked an eight-year old boy named James Phipps to use as his test subject. He scraped open a spot of James' arm and rubbed in a dissected piece of Sarah Nelms pustule into the open wound. A couple days later James became ill with cowpox but was well again within a week. This test proved that cowpox could be spread between humans as well as cows. Jenner's next test would be if the cowpox virus gave James immunity against smallpox. On July 1st of 1796, Edward Jenner obtained an infected smallpox pustule and scratched the virus filled pus into James' arm. This technique of placing a virus into a patient is called variolation. James Phipps did not develop smallpox within the
...d the disease from an infected chimpanzee in the forest. She was sent to a Swiss hospital where she recovered. An autopsy of the Chimpanzee showed effects similar to the Ebola virus.
Marburg hemorrhagic fever (Marburg HF) is a rare but acute hemorrhagic fever that affects both humans and primates. Transmission is mainly human-to-human, resulting from close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected persons. Illness caused by Marburg virus begins abruptly, with high fever, severe headache and severe malaise. The individuals at the highest risk of transmission include family members and hospital staff who care for patients infected with Marburg virus. Individuals who have close interaction with African fruit bat, human patients, or non-human primates disease-ridden with Marburg Virus are at risk. The variance diagnoses usually consist of malaria, typhoid fever, shigellosis, cholera,