Monkeypox virus is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is a member of the genus Orthopoxvirus and the family Poxviridae. This family also includes variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, as well as cowpox virus, and vaccinia virus. Humans are not generally the primary host for any member of the Poxviridae family, though the variola virus was devastating to the human population (Likos et al., 2005).
The first cases of human infections were reported in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 1970. Since 1970, there have been over 400 cases of human infection in Central Africa. In Western Africa, Monkeypox has been reported also been reported. The monkeypox strain isolated from Western Africa, however, is less severe in terms of both morbidity and mortality. This means that the Western African strain of Monkeypox virus causes fewer fatalities and is less likely to be transmitted from one human to another horizontally (Shchelkunov, 2013). In 2003, there was an outbreak of monkeypox in the United States. There were 37 reported cases of monkeypox in this outbreak, and all of the cases were linked to pet prairie dogs that came from Western Africa. Since this outbreak, there has been a trade embargo on the importation of several species of Western African rodents, including the prairie dog, to prevent another outbreak such as this from occurring (Shchelkunov, 2013).
The genome of Monkeypox virus is double-stranded DNA and consists of about 196,858 base pairs. With these base pairs, there are about 190 open reading frames. Most of the genes encoded allow Monkeypox virus to down-regulate the cellular immune responses. This generally occurs for cellular process such as ion channels that allow the cells of multicellular organi...
... middle of paper ...
...e Orthopoxvirus genus. It is generally thought to be the parental virus of the modern genus, since it also contains all of the genes that can be found in other species of this genus. It is thought that reductive evolution occurred causing some viruses, such as the variola virus, to narrow their host range. This leads to a marked increase in both morbidity and mortality. Monkeypox virus is of particular interest because it can infect a wide range of reservoirs as well as humans. Since it has a longer genome than the Variola virus it is under surveillance. Additionally, due to its similarities to Variola virus, Monkeypox virus has the potential to be used for bioterrorism. This could potentially be devastating, since the disease has a 10% fatality rate, and most of the population is not currently vaccinated against this emerging disease (Shchelkunov, 2013).
This extremely pathogenic zoonotic virus is now understood to travel from bat species, to equine intermediate hosts, to humans.[8, 10] The Hendra virus is listed as a Bio-Safety Level (BSL)-4, and can only be studied at a few adequately equipped laboratories worldwide due to its virulence.[1, 2] Case fatality rates
The 1920’s, also known as the “Roaring Twenties”, was a period of peace and prosperity that overshadowed the losses of the Great War. There were flappers, Prohibition; and widespread popularity of Jazz music. Apart from this culture, the Scopes Monkey Trial would become a widespread controversy between traditionalism and modernity. Traditionalists would have a more conservative view, while the Modernists would have a more liberal behavior.
I think the Scopes trial brought together a great cast of characters: three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan; America's best defense attorney, Clarence Darrow: and its most popular journalist, H. L. Mencken.
This virus searches for a new vulnerable host in order to survive and carry the disease to the next victim. The critical aspect around the spread of a virus is how drastically the reproduction process occurs. Without being controlled, the contamination throughout any species causes the spread to take place in a toxic way, “On day one, there were two people. And then, four, and then, sixteen. In three months, it’s a billion.
On November 28th, Dr. Peter Jahlring of the Institute was in his lab testing a. virus culture from the monkeys. Much to his horror, the blood tested positive. for the deadly Ebola Zaire virus. Ebola Zaire is the most lethal of all strains. of the Ebola.
Orthopoxvirus variola is the virus responsible for the well-known smallpox disease. It belongs to the Poxviridae family which is further split into the subfamilies Entomopoxivirinae which only affects insects, and Chordopoxivirinae which infects vertebrae (Hughes). It is in group one of the Baltimore Classification since it possesses double-stranded DNA. This group also includes viruses in the Herpesviridae family, certain bacteriophages, as well as the mimivirus. The linear genome consists of approximately 186 kb pair and, like all orthopoxviruses, is about 200 nm in diameter (Li; Riedel). Virus particles may be enveloped, but the majority will be nonenveloped when released from a lysed cell, ready and capable to affect another. Extracellular enveloped viruses evolve from their precursors intracellular enveloped virus and cell-associated enveloped virus and contain proteins that aid the virus in neutralizing host cell antibodies to enhance virus spread (Smith). Entrance into the host cell may be accomplished by fusion of endocytosis, contingent on the particular strain. Host cell cytoplasm is the site of poxvirus replication, therefore host nuclear enzymes are unavailable to the virus; to overcome this, DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enters the host with the virus (Hughes).
In a tiny courtroom in the county of Dayton Tennessee, the jury settled into their seats, ready to return the verdict in the most controversial case of the 1920’s, the scopes “monkey” trial. Up to this point, the trial itself had been a media spectacle; the lawyers, the witnesses, even the defendant had become media icons in the commercialism of the twenties. The trial itself was set up to be a media demonstration to challenge the constitutionality of the butler act. This act prohibited the teaching of “any theory that denies the story of the divine creation of man as taught in the bible,” and in particular, the theory of evolution. the American civil liberties union petitioned for a teacher to challenge this statute; john Thomas scopes, the local high school track coach and science teacher accepted the challenge and stood trial for teaching evolution the previous spring. Over the course of the trial Charles Darrow and William Jennings Bryan, the attorneys on the case, debated each other profusely. Eventually Bryan even testified to the truth of the biblical story, even though he was massacred by Darrow upon examination. Despite all that the trial stood for, the most lasting aspect of the trial was that it brought the media into the courtroom, and the courtroom into the daily life of the American citizen.
Ever since science began to explain the previously unexplainable, it has caused conflicts with religion. The Scopes “Monkey” Trial of Dayton, Tennessee was one of the most talked about trials in history because it was one of the first and most publicized times that this conflict occurred. The trial showed the schism between the faithful fundamentalists and the newly formed group of evolutionists. Although the jury was reminded that they only had to decide if Scopes had broken the law, the verdict was seen as much more than that. For one of the first times in history, it seemed as if the jury had to choose either religion or evolution. For the time being, there could not be both. The Scopes “Monkey” Trial revealed the ongoing conflict with faith and science and set a precedent for decades of conflict to come.
The virus is primarily spherical shaped and roughly 200nm in size, surrounded by a host-cell derived membrane. Its genome is minus-sense single-stranded RNA 16-18 kb in length. It contains matrix protein inside the envelope, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, fusion protein, nucleocapsid protein, and L and P proteins to form the RNA polymerase. The host-cell receptors on the outside are hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. The virus is allowed to enter the cell when the hemagglutinin/ neuraminidase glycoproteins fuse with the sialic acid on the surface of the host cell, and the capsid enters the cytoplasm. The infected cells express the fusion protein from the virus, and this links the host cells together to create syncitia.
Rift Valley Fever is a viral zoonotic disease that is arthropod-borne.1, 2, 3, 4 This viral disease primarily affects domestic animals but has the ability to affect humans.1, 3, 4 The severity of the disease can range from mild to severe and can be potentially fatal.1 An epidemic in the animal population, also known as an epizootic, could result in increased economic loss as the disease leads to livestock death and spontaneous abortion among pregnant animals .1, 2, 3, 4 A reduction in trade could also result contributing to further economic loss.1, 2, 3, 4 The virus which causes Rift Valley Fever is in the family Bunyaviridae and the genus Phlebovirus.1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Samples of tissue from patients infected with the mysterious disease were sent to the CDC Special Pathogens Branch for analysis. After a few weeks and several tests, the virologists linked the disease with an unknown type of hantavirus. Because other hantaviruses were known to be transmitted to people by inhalation or ingestion of rodent feces or urine, our next task was to collect as many species of rodent in the area as possible in order to pinpoint the source of the virus (AMNH). While trapping rodents, we decided that it was worth the risk to not wear protective clothing or masks so as to avoid alarming residents of "The Four Corners" region (CDC). After testing approximately 1,700 rodents we had found a link--the prevalent deer mouse carried the unknown type of hantavirus. But why was this mouse suddenly infecting people in this region? I was becoming frustrated, my years of work in medicine were failing me and I couldn't figure out why these people kept getting sick.
The hanta virus is not a new foe to humanity. This mysterious and sometimes fatal disease has plagued humanity for over 1000 years. This virus, most likely originating in China over 1000 years ago, is transmitted by human contact with mice. Only relatively recently has the hanta virus captured the attention of the United States. Although the hanta virus has been known for such a long time, there is little known about the virus. In the United States most cases are found in the southwestern part of the country, although cases have been reported from all four corners of the country. Recently, there have been successful tests done on prospective vaccines for the hanta virus. Despite this, strains of the hanta virus kill many people a year for lack of an effective medicine or vaccine (www.pharminfo.com).
The Scopes Trial, formally known as The State of Tennessee vs. Scopes but given the nickname “The Monkey Trial”, has been credited as starting the popular legal dispute between evolution and creationism in the court, and its impact in the 20’s was immeasurable.
Pandemics and epidemics are diseases that affect many people all over the world. They cause millions of deaths and leave many people sick. Most epidemics are contagious and spread very quickly. One kind of epidemic is the variola virus. Variola virus is most known by the name smallpox. it got it’s nickname from the small blisters that appear on the face and arms. Smallpox is believed to have originated in Egypt or Northeastern Africa about 10,000 years ago. It soon reached Asia during the middle ages and reached Europe in 700 A.D.In 18th Century Europe it killed about 400,000 people a year. In the 20th Century alone, it has killed about 300 million. This disease has also led to the downfall of the Aztec Empire and killed many royal figures from France, Russia and other countries.
This virus is similar to Ebola, because it started in the same place. Lab workers in Germany, in 1967, contracted the new virus while working with African Green Monkeys, which had the virus. The virus is described as a hemorrhagic fever. It has a fatality rate up to 90% and spreads through human to human contact. The first symptoms can be as simple as a fever and a headache, then can progress to organ failure, and fatal internal bleeding.