In her 1992 paper, “Male Aggression Against Women: An Evolutionary Perspective”, Smuts addresses four unique components, to examine the evolutionary assumption that male aggression against females occurs to optimize male reproductive success. Firstly, Smuts (1992) explores female resistance to such behavior in nonhuman primates, which she elucidates as a male reproductive strategy to control female sexuality. Secondly, several case studies of nonhuman primates are examined to formulate hypotheses explaining the role of male aggression in the evolution of human pair bonds (Smuts, 1992). Thirdly, Smuts (1992) uses her analysis of nonhuman primates to explain the cross-cultural variation in male aggression via proposing five hypotheses. Lastly, …show more content…
Firstly, Smuts (1992) explores female resistance to such behavior in nonhuman primates, which she elucidates as a male reproductive strategy to control female sexuality. The parental investment theory proposed by Robert Trivers explains that the amount of paternal care invested by males depends on numerous factors associated with the likelihood of the offspring’s survival (Smuts, 1992). Since male reproductive success is limited by the ability to fertilize females, males benefit by mating with fertile females while females do not benefit in the same manner (Smuts, 1992). Sexual conflict of interest is developed due to such contrasting strategies to optimize reproduction (Smuts, 1992). Although some males offer food, protection or aid in child rearing – other males resort to force or the threat of force to increase their chances of mating females (Smuts, 1992). Additionally, the role of male sexual coercion in influencing pair bonds is also explored. Due to the importance of male sexual coercion among nonhuman primates, Smuts (1992) challenges readers to consider the alternative hypothesis that pair bonds initially provided
This also leads into the fact that people interpret male violence and aggression as natural. They’ll pin it as something hardwired from ‘the hunter-gatherer days’. Often times they’ll also blame it on media violence, such as graphic video games, movies and TV shows. This is something much broader than that.
A Primate’s Memoir, written by Robert Sapolsky, documents the author’s time in Kenya while he studied the various behaviors of a troop of baboons. One of the key aspects of the book was the social rank that developed within the troop. Female baboons have a social hierarchy that is fairly cut and dry. The eldest baboons in the troop are considered the higher-ranking females, and as the baboons get younger, so to follows the string of dominance. The ranking for males was essentially from the strongest baboons to the weakest baboons. The baboon at the top of the social hierarchy was considered the alpha male. This social rank has huge implications for the troop in regards to which baboons mated with each other. If another baboon wanted to become the alpha male, then he would have to challenge the current alpha male to a fight, and win. The baboon’s distinct personality mixed with their instincts are the primary factors for where one lands on the social hierarchy. Another key aspect of the book was the strategies that took place when the baboons wanted to mate with another baboon. Similar to humans, the baboon males tried to impress the female baboons in a way that would make them want to mate. The rank of the male is considered to be one of the greatest factors contributing to what mate they end up with, because there is nothing more impressive than becoming a high-ranking baboon. Also, there were instances of lower-ranking baboons strategizing and forming teams with other baboons to become a higher ranking baboon for the mating possibilities. The baboons in the group are considered a patch-work of different troops, as it is common for one baboon to move to different groups frequently.
Zhao Q,Borries C, Pan W. 2011 Male takeover, infanticide, and female countertactics in white-headed leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus leucocephalus). Behavioral Ecology Sociobiology 65, 1535-1547
Throughout situations and research conducted by not only Robert Sapolsky or Jane Goodman, but from many other credited sources, we can blatantly see the, if not identical, similarities between the two species of humans and baboons. The most apparent likewise characteristics of this can be read and documented in Professor Sapolsky’s book, A Primate’s Memoirs. Sapolsky, who spent hundreds if not thousands, of hours studying these Savanna Baboons, sheds a vast insight into ideas of social dominance, mating strategies, instinctual prowess, community settings, hygiene, and reform of an entire generation; many of which can be unknowingly seen directly in the common occurrence of a humans daily life. One of the biggest ideals shown throughout history is the need for power and dominance.
Sexual violence is sometimes thought of as a natural part of life. That men have an inherit biological trait that predisposes them to violence and that it cannot be helped. The famous quote is “boys will be boys” meaning that men have no control over their actions and that if they sexual assault someone, that it is just human nature. This is in fact false. There is nothing in the biological makeup of males that can explain away sexual violence. It is a learned cultural behavior generated by gender norms and the medias perpetuation of sexual violence.
306) and society’s knowledge of the ramifications of aggression, combined with cultural expectations, helps to control how aggressive behavior is manifested (Eagly & Wood, 1991, p. 311). Females are for the most part not overtly aggressive with each other and are more inclined to use their social intelligence to exploit relationships or undermine other peers they are in competition with (Crothers, Lipinski, & Minutolo, 2009, p. 102). These manipulative behaviors are comprised of gossiping, avoidance, rumor spreading, and stealing of friends or romantic interests (Crothers et al., 2009, p.
Evolutionary psychologists found evidence more than three decades ago for sex differences in jealousy towards infidelity (Burchell, & Ward, 2011). An abundance of studies have been conducted to increase our understanding of these sex differences, and a multitude of theories have been created to explain them (Levy, Kelly, & Jack, 2006; Sagarin & Guadagno, 2004; Tagler & Gentry, 2011; Walum et al., 2013). Jealousy towards infidelity is a specific type of jealousy which is only apparent in species that reproduce through internal fertilisation (Buss, Larsen, Westen & Semmelroth, 1992). There are two types of jealousy, sexual jealousy and emotional jealousy. Sexual jealousy has been defined as jealousy elicited by a threat of sexual infidelity, which refers to any form of physical unfaithfulness that does not involve feelings (Levy, Kelly, & Jack, 2006).
Thornhill, R., & Palmer, T. (2000). A natural history of rape: biological bases of sexual coercion. Retrieved from http://www.amazon.com/Natural-History-Rape-Biological-Coercion/dp/0262700832
In order to understand the present lifestyles relating to different approaches and tactics applied by humans in mate choice preferences, there is the need to refer to Darwin (1859, 1871) evolutionary perspectives. Darwin (1871) sexual selection is the driving force for males and females reproductive quest for their genes survival. These driving forces have been classified into two categories as intra-sexual and intersexual mate selection.Intersexual selection is male sexual selection process whereby males compete with other males and the females choose the strongest as their ideal partner. Intra-sexual selection occurs when the male species fight among themselves and the strongest gain access to females for
Vicedo, M. (2009). Mothers, machines, and morals: Harry Harlow's work on primate love from lab to legend. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 45(3), 193-218. doi:10.1002/jhbs.20378
Kenrick’s ideas are supported by Buss’ 1994 experiment. Buss surveyed men and women in thirty seven countries to investigate important qualities in the opposite sex. The findings showed that women preferred resourcefulness and dependability whereas men valued chastity and youth. This study appears to support Kenrick’s “Parental Investment Theory” as Buss argues that men evolved to provide for their partners and are attracted to fertile women.
Memory is defined as “the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information” (“Tmesis”, n.d.); and it is a purely mental process that always access to stored information. Memories can either be pleasant or unpleasant, but the fact is, they still exist either way. They are an essential part of who we are and without them, we would struggle to establish our identity. Besides being images of the past, memory is equally emotions too. Emotions are the main reason a memory is either stored or forgotten. They are a key factor in memory.
The next topic of the essay was how sexuality correlated with aggression. Several tests were given out to both men and women asking them whether they saw themselves as very passionate or not at all, but with the men's test they correlated being passionate with aggression, where as they didn't do that with the women. This test showed that men are more assertive than women in relationships. Men also initiate touching and other sexual things. Rape is considered the extreme link between aggression and sexuality. This being said, there are tendencies in men of showing the wrong kind of aggression in relationships that could lead to rape.
As a human trait, the sense of control is often at the forefront of violence. This sense of control can also be used to explain child sexual abuse and particularly why father-daughter incest is higher than mother-son incest. Male dominance in society is proven to be a factor influencing child sexual
Evolutionary framework for human mating is based on three elements. First, strategies for mating developed to solve specific problems in human evolutionary history. Second, people behave differently depending on the type of mating involved. There are two types of mating, short term and long term mating. Short term mating is defined as casual sex (i.e. one-night stands and brief affairs). Long term mating is seen as a committed relationship (i.e. dating, going steady, and marriage). Third, males and females developed different strategies due to the difference in problems they have had over the course of human evolution (Buss 241). This paper will examine those strategies specific to males.