Literary Synthesis Essay

Anthologies are widely used throughout the study of literature. They hold a prominent place in the literary community as it provides an organized, compiled collection of literary works. Anthologies are important because they provide a published collection of works of a specific genre, which allows the preservation of these works. There seems to be a lack of anthologies regarding the voices of women writers during the Ancient, Pre-Medieval World, and Medieval World. Without Anthologies that showcases all of these different voices, they become blurred, and their voices would not be reached to a wider-range of audiences. It’s important to include influential women writers, such as the writers included in the Dr. Michelle M. Sauer’s anthology,

to preserve and showcase their voices, and the influential work that they have done. Wallada bint al-Mustakfi, an Andalusian poet, exemplifies being a women writer during the Medieval era. Wallada’s poetry should be included in the anthology because she is an important figure and citizen in Al-Andalus for opening up a literary salon to promote poetry and literacy for women, wrote poetry that went against gender stereotypes by illustrating how she moved freely in liberation, and she defied the Andalusian society by her demeanor. Wallada inspired many women of her time as a feminist icon, which is why she would be an excellent addition to the anthology.
Wallada bint al-Mustakfi lived between 994 to 1091 CE in a town named Córdoba, Spain, popular for their rich culture and an ample amount of poets.

The area of Córdoba, Spain was referred to as Al-Andalus, which was considered as Muslim cultural territory in the Medieval Era. Because Al-Andalus was made up of Muslims, Christians, and Jews, Wallada lived in a liberated society—able to move freely as she pleased. Both Nada Mourtada-Sabbah and Adrian Gully’s article, I am, by God, Fit for High Positions’: On the Political Role of Women in Al-Andalus, describes how women were positioned and viewed in the Andalusian society, particularly, how women enjoyed their freedom. Most Andalusian poetry shows evidence “of the very high—and very unusual—level of freedom these women enjoyed, as well as a reflection of a considerable degree of personal initiative” (Mourtada-Sabbah, Gully 184). It was perceived that many women were not restrained from any sort of barriers, yet this topic has been debated between contemporary scholars. The status of women is believed by some that it “denotes the dichotomy or duality of the condition of women in Al-Andalus rather than a particular emancipation stemming from the atmosphere of the time” (Mourtada-Sabbah, Gully 184), however, several women played a crucial role in political events. Mohja Kahf’s article, A Performance of Poetry and Prose, finds that “Arab society attached stigma to the articulation of sexual desire by virtuous free women [and]

refined courtesans of the Islamic world” (Kahf 40). Wallada broke societal barriers by not following any cultural rules. Instead, she “is the victory of a proud and free spirit and an erotic energy not easily seized by women in any society, and never without a cost” (Kahf 40). She was praised by many literary poets and scholars of her time for her demeanor of pride. Wallada did not follow the ‘traditional women role,’ nor did she mind. Perhaps the most controversial act she had done was refusing to wear the veil—a scarf that covers a women’s hair as an act of modesty in the Muslim culture and religion. She was not alone in her refusal as other noblewoman writers and poets chose this action also, believing that God created women without any blemishes which they are to show to other people so that they “may know virtue with respect to them” (Segol 160), therefore, women should not wear the veil because they are free of imperfections. Mara Segol explains in Representing the Body in Poems by Medieval Muslim Women that Wallada and other writers “got away with remaining unveiled because of their high positions and their own personal élan” (Segol 160). Wallada was able to walk freely because of her status—she was treated with high dignity for her actions, however, most women who did not have the same status as Wallada could not enjoy that same type of freedom or praise. Despite her status though, “Wallada… put her refusal to her own purposes” (Segol 160), deciding for herself what is right and wrong. Wallada also remained unmarried, yet had three lovers, she inherited her father’s properties and used them as an opportunity to lead. She also lived by herself, defending herself through the obstacles of life. Wallada did not conform to these expectations, yet she was praised for her actions—inspiring others as well.
Wallada began to inspire others by opening up a literary salon for women. Wallada was the daughter of Muhammad III al-Mustakfi (or also known as Muhammad III), who came to power as the Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba from 1024-1025. When he was around 50 years old, it is believed that he was poisoned to death. With no male heir to his name, Wallada inherited all of his properties and wealth. Using her new inheritance, she decided to build a literary salon in her palace. Samer Ali, the author of Literary Salons, infers “salons enable people to freely and voluntarily form ‘communities of love’” (Ali 595). Wallada had a passion for poetry and wanted to help her community and inspire women. In her literary salon, she offered poetry classes to all of the women in her town and her slaves and men as well. It was common for Andalusian salons for women to “commonly host single-sex or mixed-gender salons” (Ali 594)—Wallada welcomed all genders to her salons, attracting influential literary scholars and popular musicians. Salons fulfilled social functions for individuals like Wallada and her guests, but they also “fulfilled a deeply emotional purpose for both men and women” (Ali 595). Everyone who attended Wallada’s literary salon felt a personal connection with poetry and it helped many understand the function of literature in society. Githa Hariharan, the author of Almost Home: Finding a Place in the World from Kashmir to New York, explains how everyone who attended Wallada’s literary salon “would sit around her on cushions and rugs, improvising ballads and epic sagas to the sound of the lute and zither” (Hariharan). It was a place of refuge for most individuals and she inspired many to write their own poetry and encouraged others to share their voices.
Only nine poems by Wallada survive today, yet, each of her surviving poems holds significance regarding her status as a woman in Al-Andalus. Muslim Scholars today, however, argue that she and other Andalusian poets do not represent the living life in Al-Andalus nor can it be used to “learn about medieval Muslim women... because the poems were written by exceptional women, often by elite women without husbands… [therefore] they do not speak about the experience of the majority of women, most of whom were married” (Segol 147). Segol agrees that poetry does not represent an understanding of the way of life in history, however, she argues that poetry “does provide valuable reflections on the ways in which particular women viewed their social roles, their place in the public sphere, and their own bodies” (Segol 147). Many Andalusian women poets describe in their poems about their liberation in public spaces and control over their own bodies and sexuality. As a liberated woman, Wallada freely expressed her mobility, pride, and independence throughout her poems. One of her most famous poems (which is untitled, but for the purpose of this proposal, the title will be the first line), “I am, by Allah, fit for high positions,” exemplifies this notion;

RIGHT SIDE:
I am, by Allah, fit for high positions
And am going my way, with pride!
LEFT SIDE:
Forsooth I allow my lover to kiss my cheek
And bestow my kisses on him who craves it (Translated by Abdullah al-Udhari)
In this poem, Wallada expresses her pride as a woman.

These lines were embroidered on the sleeves of her robe, which she wore every day to express her mobility as a woman. By wearing the lines on her robe, it “expressed her strong opinions about her own worth and called attention to her physical mobility” (Segol 160). The right side expresses her freedom of movement in public, while the left expresses her freedom of movement in the private sectors of her life. Wallada asserts her pride by assuming she is “fit for high positions” (Wallada) by God. Segol argues that the first line of this poem is Wallada’s own affirmation between her and God—she “claims her own revelation, invoking God’s sanction, affirming her belonging in the world in which she moved” (Segal 160). She feels she belongs as a woman and believes God sees her equal to others, which allows her to move “with pride” (Wallada). She feels she is able to walk free despite her status as a woman. The second line of the poem also indicates her rejection of the veil, which Segol sees it as a relation to “a sense of pride in her physical form and its mobility, again in direct opposition to the idea of female seclusion” (Segol 160). Kahf views societal expectations, in regards to women ability, as encouraging—allowing women to be aware of their bodies, however, this was not the case for unmarried women, as it was condemned to move freely. Wallada disapproved this notion and through her poem, she brought “the expression of

sexuality within the purview of free women again” (Kahf 39). She wanted to encourage other women, regardless of their marital or economic status, that it is acceptable to move freely in public. On the left side of her robe, she describes her open mobility within the realms of a private sector. The notion of private mobility is intimate, which Wallada describes her lovers behind closed doors, “allow[ing them] to kiss [her] cheek” (Wallada). Wallada consents the lovers in her life to kiss her and she does the same—placing herself in a higher and authoritative position next to the man’s.